feat(Smt): Reject duplicate keys in inputs

This change makes it so all SMT operations that operate on batches of
key-value pairs will reject any input where the same key occurs more
than once. This ensures that all of the various SMT implementations are
coherent on the results they provide as there are no longer
order-dependent computations.

This commit introduces no measurable performance change for any impacted
code path. No performance regressions are included.

Author: iamrecursion

CHANGELOG.md

@@ -26,6 +26,7 @@
 - [BREAKING] Removed `RpoRandomCoin` and `RpxRandomCoin` and introduced a Poseidon2-based `RandomCoin` ([#871](https://github.com/0xMiden/crypto/pull/871)).
 - Harden MerkleStore deserialization and fuzz coverage ([#878](https://github.com/0xMiden/crypto/pull/878)).
 - [BREAKING] Upgraded Plonky3 from 0.4.2 to 0.5.0 and replaced `p3-miden-air`, `p3-miden-fri`, and `p3-miden-prover` with the unified `p3-miden-lifted-stark` crate. The `stark` module now re-exports the Lifted STARK proving system from [p3-miden](https://github.com/0xMiden/p3-miden).
+- [BREAKING] Updated `SparseMerkleTree` and its implementations to reject batches of key-value pairs that contain more than one instance of any given key. This may cause previously successful operations to now fail if your input batch is not de-duplicated.
 
 ## 0.22.4 (2026-03-03)
 

miden-crypto/src/merkle/smt/full/concurrent/mod.rs

@@ -103,10 +103,13 @@ impl Smt {
     where
         Self: Sized + Sync,
     {
-        // Collect and sort key-value pairs by their corresponding leaf index
+        // Collect and sort key-value pairs by their corresponding leaf index and then their key
+        // value.
         let mut sorted_kv_pairs: Vec<_> = kv_pairs.into_iter().collect();
-        sorted_kv_pairs
-            .par_sort_unstable_by_key(|(key, _)| Self::key_to_leaf_index(key).position());
+        sorted_kv_pairs.par_sort_unstable_by_key(|(key, _)| *key);
+
+        // After sorting, check for duplicate keys which are adjacent after the sort.
+        Self::check_for_duplicate_keys(&sorted_kv_pairs)?;
 
         // Convert sorted pairs into mutated leaves and capture any new pairs
         let (mut subtree_leaves, new_pairs) =
@@ -278,11 +281,7 @@ impl Smt {
         if pairs.len() > 1 {
             pairs.sort_by(|(key_1, _), (key_2, _)| leaf::cmp_keys(*key_1, *key_2));
             // Check for duplicates in a sorted list by comparing adjacent pairs
-            if let Some(window) = pairs.windows(2).find(|window| window[0].0 == window[1].0) {
-                // If we find a duplicate, return an error
-                let col = Self::key_to_leaf_index(&window[0].0).index.position();
-                return Err(MerkleError::DuplicateValuesForIndex(col));
-            }
+            Self::check_for_duplicate_keys(&pairs)?;
             Ok(Some(SmtLeaf::new_multiple(pairs).unwrap()))
         } else {
             let (key, value) = pairs.pop().unwrap();

miden-crypto/src/merkle/smt/full/mod.rs

@@ -336,7 +336,14 @@ impl Smt {
     /// [`Smt::apply_mutations()`] can be called in order to commit these changes to the Merkle
     /// tree, or [`drop()`] to discard them.
     ///
+    /// # Errors
+    ///
+    /// - [`MerkleError::DuplicateValuesForIndex`] if `kv_pairs` contains the same key more than
+    ///   once.
+    /// - [`MerkleError::TooManyLeafEntries`] if mutations would exceed 1024 entries in a leaf.
+    ///
     /// # Example
+    ///
     /// ```
     /// # use miden_crypto::{Felt, Word};
     /// # use miden_crypto::merkle::{EmptySubtreeRoots, smt::{Smt, SMT_DEPTH}};

miden-crypto/src/merkle/smt/full/tests.rs

@@ -489,9 +489,7 @@ fn test_prospective_insertion() {
 
     let mutations = smt.compute_mutations(vec![(key_2, value_2)]).unwrap();
     assert_eq!(mutations.root(), root_2, "prospective root 2 did not match actual root 2");
-    let mutations = smt
-        .compute_mutations(vec![(key_3, EMPTY_WORD), (key_2, value_2), (key_3, value_3)])
-        .unwrap();
+    let mutations = smt.compute_mutations(vec![(key_2, value_2), (key_3, value_3)]).unwrap();
     assert_eq!(mutations.root(), root_3, "mutations before and after apply did not match");
     let old_root = smt.root();
     let revert = apply_mutations(&mut smt, mutations);
@@ -503,23 +501,8 @@ fn test_prospective_insertion() {
         "reverse mutations pairs did not match"
     );
 
-    // Edge case: multiple values at the same key, where a later pair restores the original value.
-    let mutations = smt.compute_mutations(vec![(key_3, EMPTY_WORD), (key_3, value_3)]).unwrap();
-    assert_eq!(mutations.root(), root_3);
-    let old_root = smt.root();
-    let revert = apply_mutations(&mut smt, mutations);
-    assert_eq!(smt.root(), root_3);
-    assert_eq!(revert.old_root, smt.root(), "reverse mutations old root did not match");
-    assert_eq!(revert.root(), old_root, "reverse mutations new root did not match");
-    assert_eq!(
-        revert.new_pairs,
-        Map::from_iter([(key_3, value_3)]),
-        "reverse mutations pairs did not match"
-    );
-
     // Test batch updates, and that the order doesn't matter.
-    let pairs =
-        vec![(key_3, value_2), (key_2, EMPTY_WORD), (key_1, EMPTY_WORD), (key_3, EMPTY_WORD)];
+    let pairs = vec![(key_3, EMPTY_WORD), (key_2, EMPTY_WORD), (key_1, EMPTY_WORD)];
     let mutations = smt.compute_mutations(pairs).unwrap();
     assert_eq!(
         mutations.root(),
@@ -1064,6 +1047,116 @@ fn test_smt_leaf_try_from_elements_invalid_length() {
     assert_matches!(result, Err(SmtLeafError::DecodingError(_)));
 }
 
+// DUPLICATE KEY DETECTION
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+/// Tests that `compute_mutations` rejects duplicate keys (same key, same value).
+#[test]
+fn test_compute_mutations_rejects_duplicate_keys() {
+    use crate::merkle::MerkleError;
+
+    let smt = Smt::default();
+    let key = Word::from([ONE, ONE, ONE, Felt::new(42)]);
+    let value = Word::new([ONE; WORD_SIZE]);
+
+    let result = smt.compute_mutations(vec![(key, value), (key, value)]);
+
+    let expected_pos = Smt::key_to_leaf_index(&key).position();
+    assert_matches!(result, Err(MerkleError::DuplicateValuesForIndex(pos)) if pos == expected_pos);
+}
+
+/// Tests that `compute_mutations` rejects duplicate keys even with different values.
+#[test]
+fn test_compute_mutations_rejects_duplicate_keys_different_values() {
+    use crate::merkle::MerkleError;
+
+    let smt = Smt::default();
+    let key = Word::from([ONE, ONE, ONE, Felt::new(42)]);
+    let value_1 = Word::new([ONE; WORD_SIZE]);
+    let value_2 = Word::new([Felt::from_u32(2_u32); WORD_SIZE]);
+
+    let result = smt.compute_mutations(vec![(key, value_1), (key, value_2)]);
+
+    let expected_pos = Smt::key_to_leaf_index(&key).position();
+    assert_matches!(result, Err(MerkleError::DuplicateValuesForIndex(pos)) if pos == expected_pos);
+}
+
+/// Tests that `compute_mutations` rejects duplicate keys even when interleaved with another key
+/// that shares the same leaf index: `[(k1, v1), (k2, v2), (k1, v3)]`.
+#[test]
+fn test_compute_mutations_rejects_interleaved_duplicate_keys() {
+    use crate::merkle::MerkleError;
+
+    let smt = Smt::default();
+
+    // Two different keys that map to the same leaf (same most significant felt)
+    let key_1 = Word::from([ONE, ONE, ONE, Felt::new(42)]);
+    let key_2 = Word::from([Felt::new(2), Felt::new(2), Felt::new(2), Felt::new(42)]);
+
+    let value_1 = Word::new([ONE; WORD_SIZE]);
+    let value_2 = Word::new([Felt::from_u32(2_u32); WORD_SIZE]);
+    let value_3 = Word::new([Felt::from_u32(3_u32); WORD_SIZE]);
+
+    // k1 appears at positions 0 and 2, interleaved with k2
+    let result = smt.compute_mutations(vec![(key_1, value_1), (key_2, value_2), (key_1, value_3)]);
+
+    let expected_pos = Smt::key_to_leaf_index(&key_1).position();
+    assert_matches!(result, Err(MerkleError::DuplicateValuesForIndex(pos)) if pos == expected_pos);
+}
+
+/// Tests that different keys mapping to the same leaf index do NOT trigger the duplicate error.
+#[test]
+fn test_compute_mutations_no_false_positives() {
+    let smt = Smt::default();
+
+    // Two different keys that map to the same leaf (same most significant felt)
+    let key_1 = Word::from([ONE, ONE, ONE, Felt::new(42)]);
+    let key_2 = Word::from([Felt::new(2), Felt::new(2), Felt::new(2), Felt::new(42)]);
+
+    let value_1 = Word::new([ONE; WORD_SIZE]);
+    let value_2 = Word::new([Felt::from_u32(2_u32); WORD_SIZE]);
+
+    // These are different keys (despite sharing a leaf index), so this should succeed.
+    let result = smt.compute_mutations(vec![(key_1, value_1), (key_2, value_2)]);
+
+    assert!(result.is_ok(), "Different keys at the same leaf index should not be rejected");
+}
+
+/// Tests that `Smt::with_entries` rejects duplicate keys.
+#[test]
+fn test_with_entries_rejects_duplicate_keys() {
+    use crate::merkle::MerkleError;
+
+    let key = Word::from([ONE, ONE, ONE, Felt::new(42)]);
+    let value_1 = Word::new([ONE; WORD_SIZE]);
+    let value_2 = Word::new([Felt::from_u32(2_u32); WORD_SIZE]);
+
+    let result = Smt::with_entries(vec![(key, value_1), (key, value_2)]);
+
+    let expected_pos = Smt::key_to_leaf_index(&key).position();
+    assert_matches!(result, Err(MerkleError::DuplicateValuesForIndex(pos)) if pos == expected_pos);
+}
+
+/// Tests that `Smt::with_entries` rejects interleaved duplicate keys.
+#[test]
+fn test_with_entries_rejects_interleaved_duplicate_keys() {
+    use crate::merkle::MerkleError;
+
+    // Two different keys that map to the same leaf (same most significant felt)
+    let key_1 = Word::from([ONE, ONE, ONE, Felt::new(42)]);
+    let key_2 = Word::from([Felt::new(2), Felt::new(2), Felt::new(2), Felt::new(42)]);
+
+    let value_1 = Word::new([ONE; WORD_SIZE]);
+    let value_2 = Word::new([Felt::from_u32(2_u32); WORD_SIZE]);
+    let value_3 = Word::new([Felt::from_u32(3_u32); WORD_SIZE]);
+
+    // k1 appears at positions 0 and 2, interleaved with k2
+    let result = Smt::with_entries(vec![(key_1, value_1), (key_2, value_2), (key_1, value_3)]);
+
+    let expected_pos = Smt::key_to_leaf_index(&key_1).position();
+    assert_matches!(result, Err(MerkleError::DuplicateValuesForIndex(pos)) if pos == expected_pos);
+}
+
 // HELPERS
 // --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 

miden-crypto/src/merkle/smt/large/batch_ops.rs

@@ -104,13 +104,13 @@ impl<S: SmtStorage> LargeSmt<S> {
         &self,
         sorted_kv_pairs: &[(Word, Word)],
     ) -> Result<LoadedLeaves, LargeSmtError> {
-        // Collect the unique leaf indices
+        // Collect the unique leaf indices. If the input is truly sorted, then we can dedup
+        // directly.
         let mut leaf_indices: Vec<u64> = sorted_kv_pairs
             .iter()
             .map(|(key, _)| Self::key_to_leaf_index(key).position())
             .collect();
         leaf_indices.dedup();
-        leaf_indices.par_sort_unstable();
 
         // Get leaves from storage
         let leaves_from_storage = self.storage.get_leaves(&leaf_indices)?;
@@ -335,9 +335,12 @@ impl<S: SmtStorage> LargeSmt<S> {
     where
         Self: Sized + Sync,
     {
-        // Sort key-value pairs by leaf index
+        // Sort key-value pairs by their corresponding leaf index and then the key value itself.
         let mut sorted_kv_pairs: Vec<_> = kv_pairs.into_iter().collect();
-        sorted_kv_pairs.par_sort_by_key(|(key, _)| Self::key_to_leaf_index(key).position());
+        sorted_kv_pairs.par_sort_unstable_by_key(|(key, _)| *key);
+
+        // After sorting, check for duplicate keys which are adjacent after the sort.
+        Self::check_for_duplicate_keys(&sorted_kv_pairs)?;
 
         // Load leaves from storage
         let (_leaf_indices, leaf_map) = self.load_leaves_for_pairs(&sorted_kv_pairs)?;
@@ -501,15 +504,14 @@ impl<S: SmtStorage> LargeSmt<S> {
 
         // Collect and sort key-value pairs by their corresponding leaf index
         let mut sorted_kv_pairs: Vec<_> = new_pairs.iter().map(|(k, v)| (*k, *v)).collect();
-        sorted_kv_pairs
-            .par_sort_by_key(|(key, _)| LargeSmt::<S>::key_to_leaf_index(key).position());
+        sorted_kv_pairs.par_sort_unstable_by_key(|(key, _)| *key);
 
-        // Collect the unique leaf indices
+        // Collect the unique leaf indices, relying on the global sort order given by the above
+        // sort.
         let mut leaf_indices: Vec<u64> = sorted_kv_pairs
             .iter()
             .map(|(key, _)| LargeSmt::<S>::key_to_leaf_index(key).position())
             .collect();
-        leaf_indices.par_sort_unstable();
         leaf_indices.dedup();
 
         // Get leaves from storage
@@ -693,10 +695,12 @@ impl<S: SmtStorage> LargeSmt<S> {
     where
         Self: Sized + Sync,
     {
-        // Collect and sort key-value pairs by their corresponding leaf index
+        // Sort key-value pairs by their corresponding leaf index and then the key value itself.
         let mut sorted_kv_pairs: Vec<_> = kv_pairs.into_iter().collect();
-        sorted_kv_pairs
-            .par_sort_unstable_by_key(|(key, _)| LargeSmt::<S>::key_to_leaf_index(key).position());
+        sorted_kv_pairs.par_sort_unstable_by_key(|(key, _)| *key);
+
+        // After sorting, check for duplicate keys which are adjacent after the sort.
+        Self::check_for_duplicate_keys(&sorted_kv_pairs)?;
 
         // Load leaves from storage using helper
         let (_leaf_indices, leaf_map) = self.load_leaves_for_pairs(&sorted_kv_pairs)?;

miden-crypto/src/merkle/smt/large/tests.rs

@@ -256,6 +256,58 @@ fn test_duplicate_key_insertion() {
     assert!(result.is_err(), "Expected an error when inserting duplicate keys");
 }
 
+#[test]
+fn test_compute_mutations_rejects_duplicate_keys() {
+    let storage = MemoryStorage::new();
+    let smt = LargeSmt::<_>::with_entries(storage, vec![]).unwrap();
+
+    let key = Word::from([ONE, ONE, ONE, ONE]);
+    let value = Word::new([ONE; WORD_SIZE]);
+
+    let entries = vec![(key, value), (key, value)];
+    let result = smt.compute_mutations(entries);
+    assert!(
+        result.is_err(),
+        "Expected an error when computing mutations with duplicate keys"
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_compute_mutations_rejects_interleaved_duplicate_keys() {
+    let storage = MemoryStorage::new();
+    let smt = LargeSmt::<_>::with_entries(storage, vec![]).unwrap();
+
+    // Two different keys that map to the same leaf (same most significant felt)
+    let key_1 = Word::from([ONE, ONE, ONE, Felt::new(42)]);
+    let key_2 = Word::from([Felt::new(2), Felt::new(2), Felt::new(2), Felt::new(42)]);
+
+    let value_1 = Word::new([ONE; WORD_SIZE]);
+    let value_2 = Word::new([Felt::from_u32(2_u32); WORD_SIZE]);
+    let value_3 = Word::new([Felt::from_u32(3_u32); WORD_SIZE]);
+
+    // k1 appears at positions 0 and 2, interleaved with k2
+    let entries = vec![(key_1, value_1), (key_2, value_2), (key_1, value_3)];
+    let result = smt.compute_mutations(entries);
+    assert!(
+        result.is_err(),
+        "Expected an error when computing mutations with interleaved duplicate keys"
+    );
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn test_insert_batch_rejects_duplicate_keys() {
+    let storage = MemoryStorage::new();
+    let mut smt = LargeSmt::<_>::with_entries(storage, vec![]).unwrap();
+
+    let key = Word::from([ONE, ONE, ONE, ONE]);
+    let value1 = Word::new([ONE; WORD_SIZE]);
+    let value2 = Word::new([Felt::from_u32(2_u32); WORD_SIZE]);
+
+    let entries = vec![(key, value1), (key, value2)];
+    let result = smt.insert_batch(entries);
+    assert!(result.is_err(), "Expected an error when inserting batch with duplicate keys");
+}
+
 #[test]
 fn test_delete_entry() {
     let storage = MemoryStorage::new();