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Basics Concept Exercise Reformat - A Re-implementation of PR 2534 (exercism#2745)
* Edited basics exercise and change inline links to refrence links.
* Alphabetized in-doc links, edited down introduction.md and edited down links.json
* More editing down of introduction.md
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[Python](https://docs.python.org/3/) is a [dynamic and strongly](https://stackoverflow.com/questions/11328920/is-python-strongly-typed) typed [object-oriented](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming) programming language. As of version 3.5, it employs both [duck typing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duck_typing) and [gradual typing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradual_typing), via [type hints](https://docs.python.org/3/library/typing.html). It supports both imperative (_object-oriented, procedural_) and declarative (_functional, concurrent_) programming paradigms. But do not be fooled: while programming in other paradigms is fully _supported_, [everything in Python is an object](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/datamodel.html).
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## basics
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Python was created by Guido van Rossum and first released in 1991. The [Python Software Foundation](https://www.python.org/psf/) manages and directs resources for Python and CPython development and receives proposals for changes to the language from [members](https://www.python.org/psf/membership/) of the community via [Python Enhancement Proposals or PEPs](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/).
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[Python][python docs] is a [dynamic and strongly][dynamic typing in python] typed [object-oriented][object oriented programming] programming language. It employs both [duck typing][duck typing] and [gradual typing][gradual typing], via [type hints][type hints]. It supports multiple programming paradigms including both imperative (_object-oriented, procedural_) and declarative (_functional, concurrent_) flavors. But do not be fooled: while programming across paradigms is fully _supported_, [everything in Python is an object][everythings an object].
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Python puts a strong emphasis on code readability and (_similar to Haskell_) uses [significant indentation](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/lexical_analysis.html#indentation) to denote function, method, and class definitions. The [zen of Python (PEP 20)](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0020/) lays out additional inspiration and philosophy.
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Python was created by Guido van Rossum and first released in 1991. The [Python Software Foundation][psf] manages and directs resources for Python and CPython development and receives proposals for changes to the language from [members][psf membership] of the community via [Python Enhancement Proposals or PEPs][peps].
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Objects are [assigned](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/simple_stmts.html#assignment-statements) to [names](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/executionmodel.html#naming-and-binding) in Python via the `=` or _assignment operator_. [Variables](https://realpython.com/python-variables/) are written in [`snake_case`](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snake_case), and _constants_ usually in `SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE`. A name (_variable or constant_) is not itself _typed_, and can be attached or re-attached to different objects over its lifetime. For extended naming conventions and advice, see [PEP 8](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/).
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Python puts a strong emphasis on code readability and (_similar to Haskell_) uses [significant indentation][significant indentation] to denote function, method, and class definitions. The [zen of Python (PEP 20)][the zen of python] lays out additional philosophy, as does the essay [What is Pythonic?][what is pythonic].
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Complete documentation for the Python programming language can be found at [docs.python.org/3/][python docs]:
-[Python Language Reference][python language reference]
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-[Python HOW TOs][python how tos]
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-[Python FAQs][python faqs]
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-[Python Glossary of Terms][python glossary of terms]
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### Getting Started
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Objects are [assigned][assignment statements] to [names][naming and binding] in Python via the `=` or _assignment operator_. [Variables][variables] are written in [`snake_case`][snake case], and _constants_ usually in `SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE`. A name (_variable or constant_) is not itself _typed_, and can be attached or re-attached to different objects over its lifetime. For extended naming conventions and advice, see [PEP 8][pep8].
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```python
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>>> my_first_variable =1
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>>> my_first_variable ="Last one, I promise"
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>>>print(my_first_variable)
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"Last one, I promise"
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```
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Constants are usually defined on a [module](https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html) or _global_ level, and although they _can_ be changed, they are _intended_ to be named only once. Their `SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE` is a message to other developers that the assignment should not be altered:
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Constants are usually defined on a [module][module] or _global_ level, and although they _can_ be changed, they are _intended_ to be named only once. Their `SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE` is a message to other developers that the assignment should not be altered:
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```python
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# All caps signal that this is intended as a constant
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# Please don't do: MY_FIRST_CONSTANT = "Some other value"
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```
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In Python, units of functionality are encapsulated in [functions](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/compound_stmts.html#function), which are themselves [objects](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/datamodel.html#the-standard-type-hierarchy) (_Its [turtles all the way down](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtles_all_the_way_down)_).
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Functions can be executed by themselves, passed as arguments to other functions, nested, or bound to a class. When functions are bound to a [class](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/datamodel.html#classes) name, they're referred to as [methods](https://docs.python.org/3/c-api/method.html#method-objects). Related functions and classes (_with their methods_) can be grouped together in the same file or [module](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/datamodel.html#modules), and imported in part or in whole for use in other programs.
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In Python, units of functionality are encapsulated in [_functions._][functions], which are themselves [objects][objects] (_Its [turtles all the way down][turtles all the way down]_). Functions can be executed by themselves, passed as arguments to other functions, nested, or bound to a class. When functions are bound to a [class][classes] name, they're referred to as [methods][method objects]. Related functions and classes (_with their methods_) can be grouped together in the same file or module, and imported in part or in whole for use in other programs.
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The keyword `def` begins a [function definition](https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#defining-functions). It must be followed by the function name and a parenthesized list of zero or more formal [parameters](https://docs.python.org/3/glossary.html#term-parameter), which can be of several different varieties, and even [vary](https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#more-on-defining-functions) in length.
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The `def` line is terminated with a colon. Statements for the _body_ of the function begin on the next line, and must be _indented in a block_. There is no strict indentation amount (_either space **OR**[tab] characters are acceptable_), but [indentation](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/lexical_analysis.html#indentation) must be _consistent for all indented statements_. Functions explicitly return a value or object via the [`return`](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/simple_stmts.html#return) keyword. Functions that do not have an explicit `return` expression will return [`None`](https://docs.python.org/3/library/constants.html):
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The keyword `def` begins a [function definition][function definition]. It must be followed by the function name and a parenthesized list of zero or more formal [parameters][parameters], which can be of several different varieties, and even [vary][more on functions] in length. The `def` line is terminated with a colon.
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```python
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#function definition on first line.
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defadd_two_numbers(number_one, number_two):
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return number_one + number_two #returns the sum of the numbers
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return number_one + number_two #returns the sum of the numbers, and is indented by 2 spaces.
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>>> add_two_numbers(3, 4)
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#this function has no return keyword, and so will return None
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defmultiply_two_numbers(number_one, number_two):
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result = number_one * number_two
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>>>print(multiply_two_numbers(6, 8))
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None
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#the return statement line does not match the first line indent
... result = number_one + number_two + number_three #indented by 4 spaces
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...return result #this was only indented by 3 spaces
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File "<stdin>", line 3
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return result
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^
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IndentationError: unindent does not match any outer indentation level
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```
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Functions are [called](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/expressions.html#calls) using their name followed by `()`. The number of arguments passed in the parentheses must match the number of parameters in the original function definition unless [default arguments](https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#default-argument-values) have been used:
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Statements for the _body_ of the function begin on the next line down from `def`, and must be _indented in a block_. There is no strict indentation amount (_either space **OR**[tab] characters are acceptable_), but [indentation][indentation] must be _consistent for all indented statements_. Functions explicitly return a value or object via the [`return`][return] keyword. Functions that do not have an explicit `return` expression will return [`None`][none].
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Functions are [_called_][calls] using their name followed by `()`. The number of arguments passed in the parentheses must match the number of parameters in the original function definition unless [default arguments][default aruguments] have been used:
Methods bound to class names are invoked via _dot notation_ (`.`), as are functions, constants, or global names imported as part of a _module_.:
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Methods bound to class names are invoked via dot notation (.), as are functions, constants, or global names imported as part of a module.:
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```python
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import string
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#this is a constant provided by the *string* module
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#this is a constant provided by the *string* module
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>>>print(string.ascii_lowercase)
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"abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz"
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#this is a method call of the str *class*
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#this is a method call of the str *class*
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>>> start_text ="my silly sentence for examples."
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>>>str.upper(start_text)
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"MY SILLY SENTENCE FOR EXAMPLES."
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#this is a method call of an *instance* of the str *class*
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#this is a method call of an *instance* of the str *class*
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>>> start_text.upper()
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"MY SILLY SENTENCE FOR EXAMPLES."
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```
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[Comments](https://realpython.com/python-comments-guide/#python-commenting-basics) in Python start with a `#` that is not part of a string, and end at line termination. Unlike many other programming languages, Python does not support multi-line comment marks. Each line of a comment block must start with the `#` character. Comments are ignored by the interpreter:
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[Comments][comments] in Python start with a `#` that is not part of a string, and end at line termination. Unlike many other programming languages, Python does not support multi-line comment marks. Each line of a comment block must start with the `#` character. Comments are ignored by the interpreter:
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```python
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#this is a single line comment
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#these should be used sparingly
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```
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The first statement of a function body can optionally be a [docstring](https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/controlflow.html#tut-docstrings), which concisely summarizes the function or object's purpose. These docstrings are read by automated documentation tools, and are returned by calling `__doc__` on the function, method, or class. They are recommended for programs of any size where documentation is needed:
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The first statement of a function body can optionally be a [_docstring_][docstring], which concisely summarizes the function or object's purpose. These docstrings are read by automated documentation tools, and are returned by calling **doc** on the function, method, or class. . They are recommended for programs of any size where documentation is needed:
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```python
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#an example on a user-defined function
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errors defaults to 'strict'.
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```
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Docstrings can also include [doctests](https://docs.python.org/3/library/doctest.html), which are interactive examples of how a method or function should work. Doctests can be read and run by PyTest, or by importing the `doctest` module.
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Docstrings can also include [doctests][doctests], which are interactive examples of how a method or funtion should work. Doctests can be read and run by PyTest, or by importing the `doctest` module.
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