You signed in with another tab or window. Reload to refresh your session.You signed out in another tab or window. Reload to refresh your session.You switched accounts on another tab or window. Reload to refresh your session.Dismiss alert
description="C. H. Turner, August 9, 1921; a gelatin silver print of Charles Henry Turner at Sumner High School, St. Louis, Missouri. 15 x 10 cm. From the W. E. B. Du Bois Papers"
19
+
description="C. H. Turner, August 9, 1921; a gelatin silver print of
20
+
Charles Henry Turner at Sumner High School, St. Louis, Missouri. 15 x
Recently, while reading Lars Chittka's 2022 book, [_The Mind of a Bee_](https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691180472/the-mind-of-a-bee), I became intrigued by the story of zoologist [Charles Henry Turner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Henry_Turner_(zoologist)). In recognition of Black History Month (and coincidentally Turner's birthday), I'd like to share a short summary of what I learned about this outstanding Black American scientist.
24
+
Recently, while reading Lars Chittka's 2022 book, [_The Mind of a
In recognition of Black History Month (and coincidentally Turner's
29
+
birthday), I'd like to share a short summary of what I learned about
30
+
this outstanding Black American scientist.
23
31
24
-
Charles Henry Turner was born in Cincinnati, Ohio in 1867, just two years after the end of the Civil War. Turner excelled in school and was valedictorian of his graduating class at Woodard High School. He earned a B.S. in Biology from the University of Cincinnati in 1891 and then went on to become the first African American to earn a graduate degree from that same University when he earned his M.S. in Biology in 1892. In 1907, he earned his Ph.D. in Zoology, _magna cum laude_, likely being the first African American to earn a doctorate from the University of Chicago and certainly among only a tiny handful of Black people to have done so anywhere in the United States at that time.[^nih]
32
+
Charles Henry Turner was born in Cincinnati, Ohio in 1867, just two
33
+
years after the end of the Civil War. Turner excelled in school and was
34
+
valedictorian of his graduating class at Woodard High School. He earned
35
+
a B.S. in Biology from the University of Cincinnati in 1891 and then
36
+
went on to become the first African American to earn a graduate degree
37
+
from that same University when he earned his M.S. in Biology in 1892.
38
+
In 1907, he earned his Ph.D. in Zoology, _magna cum laude_, likely being
39
+
the first African American to earn a doctorate from the University of
40
+
Chicago and certainly among only a tiny handful of Black people to have
41
+
done so anywhere in the United States at that time.[^nih]
25
42
26
-
After receiving his doctorate, Turner faced problems finding a job in academia. He was considered for a professorship at the University of Chicago, but the professor who invited him to apply died and, according to sociologist and civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois, his replacement refused to hire a Black scientist.[^knowable] At the Tuskegee Institute, Turner was turned down because president Booker T. Washington reportedly could not afford to pay the salaries of both Turner and another famous Black American scientist, George Washington Carver.[^okstate] Turner consequently worked as a high school teacher for the remainder of his career, spending most of it at Sumner High School in St. Louis, Missouri. He continued to pursue his research and publication throughout his career, even while teaching high school. I was amazed to learn that Turner used bees as teaching tools to demonstrate principles of complex behavior even in his high school biology classes. One of my favorite notes suggesting his effectiveness in this regard comes from one of his students:[^okstate]
27
-
>"The bees appeared at the table at all three meals. Then Dr. Turner put jam only at breakfast daily. They still came to each meal but found no jam at noon and night. Soon they stopped coming. This shows they have some idea of time."
43
+
After receiving his doctorate, Turner faced problems finding a job in
44
+
academia. He was considered for a professorship at the University of
45
+
Chicago, but the professor who invited him to apply died and, according
46
+
to sociologist and civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois, his replacement
47
+
refused to hire a Black scientist.[^knowable] At the Tuskegee Institute,
48
+
Turner was turned down because president Booker T. Washington reportedly
49
+
could not afford to pay the salaries of both Turner and another famous
50
+
Black American scientist, George Washington Carver.[^okstate] Turner
51
+
consequently worked as a high school teacher for the remainder of his
52
+
career, spending most of it at Sumner High School in St. Louis, Missouri.
53
+
He continued to pursue his research and publication throughout his career,
54
+
even while teaching high school. I was amazed to learn that Turner used
55
+
bees as teaching tools to demonstrate principles of complex behavior even
56
+
in his high school biology classes. One of my favorite notes suggesting
57
+
his effectiveness in this regard comes from one of his students:[^okstate]
58
+
>"The bees appeared at the table at all three meals. Then Dr. Turner put
59
+
jam only at breakfast daily. They still came to each meal but found no
60
+
jam at noon and night. Soon they stopped coming. This shows they have
61
+
some idea of time."
28
62
29
-
Turner's work spanned such diverse areas as comparative neuroanatomy in both vertebrates and invertebrates, arthropod taxonomy, insect and spider behavior, audition in moths, leaf morphology in grapevines, and even civil rights.[^nih] The extent of his scientific works are too large to do justice to here, and fortunately extensive accounts do exist.[^pubmed] Some of his notable academic publications include:[^okstate]
30
-
* 1892: "_Psychological notes upon the gallery spider_", making Turner the first African American Psychologist and the first African American Comparative Psychologist
31
-
* 1892: "_A few characteristics of the avian brain_", establishing Turner as the first African American to publish in in the journal _Science_
32
-
* 1910: "_Experiments on color-vision of the honey bee_", providing conclusive evidence that honey bees can see color
33
-
* 1911: "_Experiments on the pattern vision of the honey bee_", providing conclusive evidence that honey bees can see patterns
34
-
* 1914: "_Auditory Powers of the catocala moths: An experimental field study_", providing conclusive evidence that insects can hear airborne sounds
35
-
* 1914: "_An experimental study of the auditory powers of the giant silkworm moths, Saturniidae_", considered to be the first classical conditioning experiment with insects
63
+
Turner's work spanned such diverse areas as comparative neuroanatomy in
64
+
both vertebrates and invertebrates, arthropod taxonomy, insect and spider
65
+
behavior, audition in moths, leaf morphology in grapevines, and even
66
+
civil rights.[^nih] The extent of his scientific works is too large to
67
+
do justice to here, and fortunately extensive accounts do exist.[^pubmed]
68
+
Some of his notable academic publications include:[^okstate]
36
69
37
-
In addition to his scientific work, Turner also wrote on the social and educational issues of his day. In 1897, he published, "_Reason for Teaching Biology in Negro Schools_", which was the first of a series of papers discussing the importance of education for both Caucasian and African American children. Turner was a leader in the civil rights movement in St. Louis and was instrumental in developing social services for African Americans in the St. Louis area.[^okstate]
70
+
* 1892: "_Psychological notes upon the gallery spider_", making Turner
71
+
the first African American Psychologist and the first African American
72
+
Comparative Psychologist
73
+
* 1892: "_A few characteristics of the avian brain_", establishing Turner
74
+
as the first African American to publish in in the journal _Science_
75
+
* 1910: "_Experiments on color-vision of the honey bee_", providing
76
+
conclusive evidence that honey bees can see color
77
+
* 1911: "_Experiments on the pattern vision of the honey bee_", providing
78
+
conclusive evidence that honey bees can see patterns
79
+
* 1914: "_Auditory Powers of the catocala moths: An experimental field
80
+
study_", providing conclusive evidence that insects can hear airborne
81
+
sounds
82
+
* 1914: "_An experimental study of the auditory powers of the giant
83
+
silkworm moths, Saturniidae_", considered to be the first classical
84
+
conditioning experiment with insects
38
85
39
-
The philosophy of animal intelligence and cognition has a long and complex history, stretching back to the time of Aristotle, with varying levels of acceptance of the idea that animals can be considered autonomous, sentient beings.[^nautilus] Recent research has provided new physical evidence supporting the arguments that many animals (and certainly a far wider range of species than we have ever even considered before) are indeed sentient, and have individual personalities and cognitive capabilities traditionally attributed only to humans and our immediate relatives.[^quanta][^psychtoday] Indeed, many of the scientists involved in these research efforts have cited Turner's work as pioneering.[^knowable]
86
+
In addition to his scientific work, Turner also wrote on the social and
87
+
educational issues of his day. In 1897, he published, "_Reason for
88
+
Teaching Biology in Negro Schools_", which was the first of a series
89
+
of papers discussing the importance of education for both Caucasian
90
+
and African American children. Turner was a leader in the civil rights
91
+
movement in St. Louis and was instrumental in developing social services
92
+
for African Americans in the St. Louis area.[^okstate]
40
93
41
-
Sadly, Turner died in 1923 at the relatively young age of 56 from an acute case of myocarditis which could've been exacerbated by his heavy teaching workload and relatively low pay. I cannot help but wonder how much more impact he could have had on the state of science education, particularly Black science education, and the burgeoning field of animal cognition if he had lived longer and been able to continue his work.
94
+
The philosophy of animal intelligence and cognition has a long and complex
95
+
history, stretching back to the time of Aristotle, with varying levels
96
+
of acceptance of the idea that animals can be considered autonomous,
97
+
sentient beings.[^nautilus] Recent research has provided new physical
98
+
evidence supporting the arguments that many animals (and certainly a
99
+
far wider range of species than we have ever even considered before)
100
+
are indeed sentient, and have individual personalities and cognitive
101
+
capabilities traditionally attributed only to humans and our immediate
102
+
relatives.[^quanta][^psychtoday] Indeed, many of the scientists
103
+
involved in these research efforts have cited Turner's work as
104
+
pioneering.[^knowable]
105
+
106
+
Sadly, Turner died in 1923 at the relatively young age of 56 from an
107
+
acute case of myocarditis which could've been exacerbated by his heavy
108
+
teaching workload and relatively low pay. I cannot help but wonder how
109
+
much more impact he could have had on the state of science education,
110
+
particularly Black science education, and the burgeoning field of animal
111
+
cognition if he had lived longer and been able to continue his work.
42
112
43
113
### References
44
114
@@ -48,4 +118,4 @@ Sadly, Turner died in 1923 at the relatively young age of 56 from an acute case
48
118
[^psychtoday]: [The Current State of the Science of Insect Sentience](https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/animal-emotions/202405/the-current-state-of-the-science-of-insect-sentience)
49
119
[^nautilus]: [The New Science of Animal Minds](https://nautil.us/the-new-science-of-animal-minds-713384/)
50
120
[^quanta]: [Insects and Other Animals Have Consciousness, Experts Declare](https://www.quantamagazine.org/insects-and-other-animals-have-consciousness-experts-declare-20240419/)
51
-
[^pubmed]: [Charles H. Turner, pioneer in animal cognition](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33122372/)
121
+
[^pubmed]: [Charles H. Turner, pioneer in animal cognition](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33122372/)
0 commit comments