Paths, OS Commands

Author: gto76

README.md

@@ -1631,13 +1631,13 @@ from pathlib import Path
 ```
 
 ```python
-<str>  = os.path.basename(<path>)   # Returns path's final component, i.e. file/dir.
-<str>  = os.path.dirname(<path>)    # Returns path with its final component removed.
+<str>  = os.path.basename(<path>)   # Returns final component (filename or dirname).
+<str>  = os.path.dirname(<path>)    # Returns the path without its final component.
 <tup.> = os.path.splitext(<path>)   # Splits on last period of the final component.
 ```
 
 ```python
-<list> = os.listdir(path='.')       # Returns all filenames located at the path.
+<list> = os.listdir(path='.')       # Returns all file/dirnames located at the path.
 <list> = glob.glob('<pattern>')     # Returns paths matching the wildcard pattern.
 ```
 
@@ -1648,8 +1648,8 @@ from pathlib import Path
 ```
 
 ```python
-<stat> = os.stat(<path>)            # File's status. Also <Path/DirEntry>.stat().
-<num>  = <stat>.st_mtime/st_size/…  # Returns modification time, size in bytes, etc.
+<stat> = os.stat(<path>)            # A status object. Also <Path/DirEntry>.stat().
+<num>  = <stat>.st_size/st_mtime/…  # Returns size in bytes, modification time, etc.
 ```
 
 ### DirEntry
@@ -1672,16 +1672,16 @@ from pathlib import Path
 ```python
 <Path> = Path()                     # Returns current working dir. Also Path('.').
 <Path> = Path.cwd()                 # Returns absolute CWD. Also Path().resolve().
-<Path> = Path.home()                # Returns user's home directory (absolute).
+<Path> = Path.home()                # Returns the user's absolute home directory.
 <Path> = Path(__file__).resolve()   # Returns module's path if CWD wasn't changed.
 ```
 
 ```python
-<Path> = <Path>.parent              # Returns Path without the final component.
-<str>  = <Path>.name                # Returns path's final component as a string.
-<str>  = <Path>.suffix              # Returns name's last extension, e.g. '.gz'.
-<str>  = <Path>.stem                # Returns name without the last extension.
-<tup.> = <Path>.parts               # Returns all path's components as strings.
+<Path> = <Path>.parent              # Returns the path without its final component.
+<str>  = <Path>.name                # Returns final component (filename or dirname).
+<str>  = <Path>.suffix              # Returns the name's last extension, e.g. '.gz'.
+<str>  = <Path>.stem                # Returns the name without its last extension.
+<tup.> = <Path>.parts               # Returns a tuple of all components as strings.
 ```
 
 ```python
@@ -1708,9 +1708,9 @@ os.makedirs(<path>, mode=0o777)  # Creates all path's dirs. Also `exist_ok=False
 ```
 
 ```python
-shutil.copy(from, to)            # Copies the file. 'to' can exist or be a dir.
+shutil.copy(from, to)            # Copies the file ('to' can exist or be a dir).
 shutil.copy2(from, to)           # Also copies creation and modification time.
-shutil.copytree(from, to)        # Copies the directory. 'to' must not exist.
+shutil.copytree(from, to)        # Copies the directory ('to' must not exist).
 ```
 
 ```python
@@ -1720,7 +1720,7 @@ shutil.move(from, to)            # Rename() that moves into 'to' if it's a dir.
 ```
 
 ```python
-os.remove(<path>)                # Deletes the file. Or `pip3 install send2trash`.
+os.remove(<path>)                # Deletes file. Also `$ pip3 install send2trash`.
 os.rmdir(<path>)                 # Deletes the empty directory or raises OSError.
 shutil.rmtree(<path>)            # Deletes the directory and all of its contents.
 ```
@@ -1729,9 +1729,9 @@ shutil.rmtree(<path>)            # Deletes the directory and all of its contents
 
 ### Shell Commands
 ```python
-<pipe> = os.popen('<commands>')  # Executes commands in sh/cmd. Returns combined stdout.
-<str>  = <pipe>.read(size=-1)    # Reads 'size' chars or until EOF. Also readline/s().
-<int>  = <pipe>.close()          # Returns None if last command exited with returncode 0.
+<pipe> = os.popen('<commands>')  # Executes commands in sh/cmd. Also os.system().
+<str>  = <pipe>.read(size=-1)    # Returns a combined stdout. Also readline/s().
+<int>  = <pipe>.close()          # Returns None if last command exited with 0.
 ```
 
 #### Sends "1 + 1" to the basic calculator and captures its output:
@@ -1958,7 +1958,7 @@ Bytes
 ```python
 <bytes> = bytes(<coll_of_ints>)          # Integers must be in range from 0 to 255.
 <bytes> = bytes(<str>, 'utf-8')          # Encodes the string. Also <str>.encode().
-<bytes> = bytes.fromhex('<hex>')         # Hex pairs can be separated by whitespaces.
+<bytes> = bytes.fromhex('<hex>')         # Hex pairs can be separated by whitespace.
 <bytes> = <int>.to_bytes(n_bytes, …)     # `byteorder='big/little', signed=False`.
 ```
 

index.html

@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@
 
 <body>
   <header>
-    <aside>November 5, 2025</aside>
+    <aside>November 8, 2025</aside>
     <a href="https://gto76.github.io" rel="author">Jure Šorn</a>
   </header>
 
@@ -1396,19 +1396,19 @@
 &lt;str&gt;  = os.path.join(&lt;path&gt;, ...)  <span class="hljs-comment"># Uses os.sep to join strings or Path objects.</span>
 &lt;str&gt;  = os.path.realpath(&lt;path&gt;)   <span class="hljs-comment"># Resolves symlinks and calls path.abspath().</span>
 </code></pre>
-<pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;str&gt;  = os.path.basename(&lt;path&gt;)   <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns path's final component, i.e. file/dir.</span>
-&lt;str&gt;  = os.path.dirname(&lt;path&gt;)    <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns path with its final component removed.</span>
+<pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;str&gt;  = os.path.basename(&lt;path&gt;)   <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns final component (filename or dirname).</span>
+&lt;str&gt;  = os.path.dirname(&lt;path&gt;)    <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns the path without its final component.</span>
 &lt;tup.&gt; = os.path.splitext(&lt;path&gt;)   <span class="hljs-comment"># Splits on last period of the final component.</span>
 </code></pre>
-<pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;list&gt; = os.listdir(path=<span class="hljs-string">'.'</span>)       <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns all filenames located at the path.</span>
+<pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;list&gt; = os.listdir(path=<span class="hljs-string">'.'</span>)       <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns all file/dirnames located at the path.</span>
 &lt;list&gt; = glob.glob(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;pattern&gt;'</span>)     <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns paths matching the wildcard pattern.</span>
 </code></pre>
 <pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;bool&gt; = os.path.exists(&lt;path&gt;)     <span class="hljs-comment"># Checks if path exists. Also &lt;Path&gt;.exists().</span>
 &lt;bool&gt; = os.path.isfile(&lt;path&gt;)     <span class="hljs-comment"># Also &lt;Path&gt;.is_file() and &lt;DirEntry&gt;.is_file().</span>
 &lt;bool&gt; = os.path.isdir(&lt;path&gt;)      <span class="hljs-comment"># Also &lt;Path&gt;.is_dir() and &lt;DirEntry&gt;.is_dir().</span>
 </code></pre>
-<pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;stat&gt; = os.stat(&lt;path&gt;)            <span class="hljs-comment"># File's status. Also &lt;Path/DirEntry&gt;.stat().</span>
-&lt;num&gt;  = &lt;stat&gt;.st_mtime/st_size/…  <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns modification time, size in bytes, etc.</span>
+<pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;stat&gt; = os.stat(&lt;path&gt;)            <span class="hljs-comment"># A status object. Also &lt;Path/DirEntry&gt;.stat().</span>
+&lt;num&gt;  = &lt;stat&gt;.st_size/st_mtime/…  <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns size in bytes, modification time, etc.</span>
 </code></pre>
 <div><h3 id="direntry">DirEntry</h3><p><strong>Unlike listdir(), scandir() returns DirEntry objects that cache isfile, isdir, and on Windows also stat information, thus significantly increasing the performance of code that requires it.</strong></p><pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;iter&gt; = os.scandir(path=<span class="hljs-string">'.'</span>)       <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns DirEntry objects located at the path.</span>
 &lt;str&gt;  = &lt;DirEntry&gt;.path            <span class="hljs-comment"># Is absolute if 'path' argument was absolute.</span>
@@ -1424,14 +1424,14 @@
 
 <pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;Path&gt; = Path()                     <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns current working dir. Also Path('.').</span>
 &lt;Path&gt; = Path.cwd()                 <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns absolute CWD. Also Path().resolve().</span>
-&lt;Path&gt; = Path.home()                <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns user's home directory (absolute).</span>
+&lt;Path&gt; = Path.home()                <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns the user's absolute home directory.</span>
 &lt;Path&gt; = Path(__file__).resolve()   <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns module's path if CWD wasn't changed.</span>
 </code></pre>
-<pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;Path&gt; = &lt;Path&gt;.parent              <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns Path without the final component.</span>
-&lt;str&gt;  = &lt;Path&gt;.name                <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns path's final component as a string.</span>
-&lt;str&gt;  = &lt;Path&gt;.suffix              <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns name's last extension, e.g. '.gz'.</span>
-&lt;str&gt;  = &lt;Path&gt;.stem                <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns name without the last extension.</span>
-&lt;tup.&gt; = &lt;Path&gt;.parts               <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns all path's components as strings.</span>
+<pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;Path&gt; = &lt;Path&gt;.parent              <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns the path without its final component.</span>
+&lt;str&gt;  = &lt;Path&gt;.name                <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns final component (filename or dirname).</span>
+&lt;str&gt;  = &lt;Path&gt;.suffix              <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns the name's last extension, e.g. '.gz'.</span>
+&lt;str&gt;  = &lt;Path&gt;.stem                <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns the name without its last extension.</span>
+&lt;tup.&gt; = &lt;Path&gt;.parts               <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns a tuple of all components as strings.</span>
 </code></pre>
 <pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;iter&gt; = &lt;Path&gt;.iterdir()           <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns directory contents as Path objects.</span>
 &lt;iter&gt; = &lt;Path&gt;.glob(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;pattern&gt;'</span>)   <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns Paths matching the wildcard pattern.</span>
@@ -1446,25 +1446,25 @@
 os.mkdir(&lt;path&gt;, mode=<span class="hljs-number">0o777</span>)     <span class="hljs-comment"># Creates a directory. Permissions are in octal.</span>
 os.makedirs(&lt;path&gt;, mode=<span class="hljs-number">0o777</span>)  <span class="hljs-comment"># Creates all path's dirs. Also `exist_ok=False`.</span>
 </code></pre>
-<pre><code class="python language-python hljs">shutil.copy(from, to)            <span class="hljs-comment"># Copies the file. 'to' can exist or be a dir.</span>
+<pre><code class="python language-python hljs">shutil.copy(from, to)            <span class="hljs-comment"># Copies the file ('to' can exist or be a dir).</span>
 shutil.copy2(from, to)           <span class="hljs-comment"># Also copies creation and modification time.</span>
-shutil.copytree(from, to)        <span class="hljs-comment"># Copies the directory. 'to' must not exist.</span>
+shutil.copytree(from, to)        <span class="hljs-comment"># Copies the directory ('to' must not exist).</span>
 </code></pre>
 <pre><code class="python language-python hljs">os.rename(from, to)              <span class="hljs-comment"># Renames or moves the file or directory 'from'.</span>
 os.replace(from, to)             <span class="hljs-comment"># Same, but overwrites file 'to' even on Windows.</span>
 shutil.move(from, to)            <span class="hljs-comment"># Rename() that moves into 'to' if it's a dir.</span>
 </code></pre>
-<pre><code class="python language-python hljs">os.remove(&lt;path&gt;)                <span class="hljs-comment"># Deletes the file. Or `pip3 install send2trash`.</span>
+<pre><code class="python language-python hljs">os.remove(&lt;path&gt;)                <span class="hljs-comment"># Deletes file. Also `$ pip3 install send2trash`.</span>
 os.rmdir(&lt;path&gt;)                 <span class="hljs-comment"># Deletes the empty directory or raises OSError.</span>
 shutil.rmtree(&lt;path&gt;)            <span class="hljs-comment"># Deletes the directory and all of its contents.</span>
 </code></pre>
 <ul>
 <li><strong>Paths can be either strings, Path objects, or DirEntry objects.</strong></li>
 <li><strong>Functions report OS related errors by raising OSError or one of its <a href="#exceptions-1">subclasses</a>.</strong></li>
 </ul>
-<div><h3 id="shellcommands">Shell Commands</h3><pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;pipe&gt; = os.popen(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;commands&gt;'</span>)  <span class="hljs-comment"># Executes commands in sh/cmd. Returns combined stdout.</span>
-&lt;str&gt;  = &lt;pipe&gt;.read(size=<span class="hljs-number">-1</span>)    <span class="hljs-comment"># Reads 'size' chars or until EOF. Also readline/s().</span>
-&lt;int&gt;  = &lt;pipe&gt;.close()          <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns None if last command exited with returncode 0.</span>
+<div><h3 id="shellcommands">Shell Commands</h3><pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;pipe&gt; = os.popen(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;commands&gt;'</span>)  <span class="hljs-comment"># Executes commands in sh/cmd. Also os.system().</span>
+&lt;str&gt;  = &lt;pipe&gt;.read(size=<span class="hljs-number">-1</span>)    <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns a combined stdout. Also readline/s().</span>
+&lt;int&gt;  = &lt;pipe&gt;.close()          <span class="hljs-comment"># Returns None if last command exited with 0.</span>
 </code></pre></div>
 
 <div><h4 id="sends11tothebasiccalculatorandcapturesitsoutput">Sends "1 + 1" to the basic calculator and captures its output:</h4><pre><code class="python language-python hljs"><span class="hljs-meta">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span>subprocess.run(<span class="hljs-string">'bc'</span>, input=<span class="hljs-string">'1 + 1\n'</span>, capture_output=<span class="hljs-keyword">True</span>, text=<span class="hljs-keyword">True</span>)
@@ -1635,7 +1635,7 @@
 
 <div><h3 id="encode-1">Encode</h3><pre><code class="python language-python hljs">&lt;bytes&gt; = bytes(&lt;coll_of_ints&gt;)          <span class="hljs-comment"># Integers must be in range from 0 to 255.</span>
 &lt;bytes&gt; = bytes(&lt;str&gt;, <span class="hljs-string">'utf-8'</span>)          <span class="hljs-comment"># Encodes the string. Also &lt;str&gt;.encode().</span>
-&lt;bytes&gt; = bytes.fromhex(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;hex&gt;'</span>)         <span class="hljs-comment"># Hex pairs can be separated by whitespaces.</span>
+&lt;bytes&gt; = bytes.fromhex(<span class="hljs-string">'&lt;hex&gt;'</span>)         <span class="hljs-comment"># Hex pairs can be separated by whitespace.</span>
 &lt;bytes&gt; = &lt;int&gt;.to_bytes(n_bytes, …)     <span class="hljs-comment"># `byteorder='big/little', signed=False`.</span>
 </code></pre></div>
 
@@ -2936,7 +2936,7 @@ <h3 id="format-2">Format</h3><div><h4 id="forstandardtypesizesandmanualalignment
 
 
   <footer>
-    <aside>November 5, 2025</aside>
+    <aside>November 8, 2025</aside>
     <a href="https://gto76.github.io" rel="author">Jure Šorn</a>
   </footer>
 

parse.js

@@ -90,9 +90,9 @@ const CONSTRUCTOR_OVERLOADING =
   '        self.a = a\n';
 
 const SHUTIL_COPY =
-  'shutil.copy(from, to)            <span class="hljs-comment"># Copies the file. \'to\' can exist or be a dir.</span>\n' +
+  'shutil.copy(from, to)            <span class="hljs-comment"># Copies the file (\'to\' can exist or be a dir).</span>\n' +
   'shutil.copy2(from, to)           <span class="hljs-comment"># Also copies creation and modification time.</span>\n' +
-  'shutil.copytree(from, to)        <span class="hljs-comment"># Copies the directory. \'to\' must not exist.</span>\n';
+  'shutil.copytree(from, to)        <span class="hljs-comment"># Copies the directory (\'to\' must not exist).</span>\n';
 
 const OS_RENAME =
   'os.rename(from, to)              <span class="hljs-comment"># Renames or moves the file or directory \'from\'.</span>\n' +

pdf/remove_links.py

@@ -24,8 +24,8 @@
     '<strong>Use <code class="python hljs"><span class="hljs-string">\'logging.exception(&lt;str&gt;)\'</span></code> to log the passed message, followed by the full error message of the caught exception. For details about setting up the logger see <a href="#logging">Logging</a>.</strong>': '<strong>Use <code class="python hljs"><span class="hljs-string">\'logging.exception(&lt;str&gt;)\'</span></code> to log the passed message, followed by the full error message of the caught exception. For details about the logger setup see Logging (p. 31).</strong>',
     '<strong>Functions report OS related errors by raising OSError or one of its <a href="#exceptions-1">subclasses</a>.</strong>': '<strong>Functions report OS related errors by raising OSError or one of its subclasses (p. 23).</strong>',
     '<strong>Without the <code class="python hljs"><span class="hljs-string">\'newline=""\'</span></code> argument, every \'\\r\\n\' sequence that is embedded inside a quoted field will get converted to \'\\n\'! For details about newline argument see <a href="#open">Open</a>.</strong>': '<strong>Without the <code class="python hljs"><span class="hljs-string">\'newline=""\'</span></code> argument, every \'\\r\\n\' sequence that is embedded inside a quoted field will get converted to \'\\n\'! For details about newline arg. see Open (p. 22).</strong>',
-    '<strong>To print the spreadsheet to the console use <a href="#table">Tabulate</a> or PrettyTable library.</strong>': '<strong>To print the spreadsheet to the console use Tabulate or PrettyTable library (p. 34).</strong>',
-    '<strong>For XML and binary Excel files (xlsx, xlsm and xlsb) use <a href="#fileformats">Pandas</a> library.</strong>': '<strong>For XML and binary Excel files (xlsx, xlsm and xlsb) use Pandas library (p. 46).</strong>',
+    '<strong>To print the spreadsheet to the console use either <a href="#table">Tabulate</a> or PrettyTable library.</strong>': '<strong>To print the spreadsheet to the console use either Tabulate or PrettyTable library (p. 34).</strong>',
+    '<strong>For XML and binary Excel files (extensions xlsx, xlsm and xlsb) use <a href="#fileformats">Pandas</a> library.</strong>': '<strong>For XML and binary Excel files (extensions xlsx, xlsm and xlsb) use Pandas library (p. 46).</strong>',
     '<strong>Bools will be stored and returned as ints and dates as <a href="#encode">ISO formatted strings</a>.</strong>': '<strong>Bools will be stored and returned as ints and dates as ISO formatted strings (p. 9).</strong>',
     '<strong>ProcessPoolExecutor provides true parallelism but: everything sent to/from workers must be <a href="#pickle">pickable</a>, queues must be sent using executor\'s \'initargs\' and \'initializer\' parameters, and executor should only be reachable via <code class="python hljs"><span class="hljs-string">\'if __name__ == "__main__": ...\'</span></code>.</strong>': '<strong>ProcessPoolExecutor provides true parallelism but: everything sent to/from workers must be pickable, queues must be sent using executor\'s \'initargs\' and \'initializer\' parameters, and executor should only be reachable via <code class="python hljs"><span class="hljs-string">\'if __name__ == "__main__": ...\'</span></code>.</strong>',
     '<strong>Install a WSGI server like <a href="https://flask.palletsprojects.com/en/latest/deploying/waitress/">Waitress</a> and a HTTP server such as <a href="https://flask.palletsprojects.com/en/latest/deploying/nginx/">Nginx</a> for better security.</strong>': '<strong>Install a WSGI server like Waitress and a HTTP server such as Nginx for better security.</strong>',