Python 3.11 examples

Author: gahjelle

python-311/README.md

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+# Python 3.11 Demos
+
+This repository holds example code that demos some of the new features in Python 3.11.
+
+## Introduction
+
+You need Python 3.11 installed to run these examples. See the following tutorial instructions:
+
+- [How Can You Install a Pre-Release Version of Python](https://realpython.com/python-pre-release/)
+
+You can learn more about Python 3.11's new features in the following Real Python tutorials:
+
+- [Python 3.11 Preview: Even Better Error Messages](https://realpython.com/python311-error-messages/)
+- [Python 3.11 Preview: Task and Exception Groups](https://realpython.com/python311-exception-groups/)
+- [Python 3.11 Preview: TOML and `tomllib`](https://realpython.com/python311-tomllib/)
+
+You'll find examples from all these tutorials in this repository.
+
+## Dependencies
+
+Install necessary dependencies for the examples:
+
+```console
+$ python -m pip install colorama parse
+```
+
+## Examples
+
+This section only contains brief instructions on how you can run the examples. See the tutorials for technical details.
+
+### Improved Error Messages
+
+Load [`scientists.py`](scientists.py) into your interactive REPL:
+
+```console
+$ python -i scientists.py 
+```
+You can then experiment with `dict_to_person()` and `convert_pair()`:
+
+```pycon
+>>> dict_to_person(scientists[1])
+Traceback (most recent call last):
+  ...
+  File "/home/realpython/scientists.py", line 37, in dict_to_person
+    name=f"{info['name']['first']} {info['name']['last']}",
+                                    ~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^
+KeyError: 'last'
+
+>>> convert_pair(scientists[0], scientists[2])
+Traceback (most recent call last):
+  ...
+  File "/home/realpython/scientists.py", line 44, in convert_pair
+    return dict_to_person(first), dict_to_person(second)
+                                  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+  File "/home/realpython/scientists.py", line 38, in dict_to_person
+    life_span=(info["birth"]["year"], info["death"]["year"]),
+               ~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^
+TypeError: 'NoneType' object is not subscriptable
+```
+
+See [Even Better Error Messages in Python 3.11](https://realpython.com/python311-error-messages/#even-better-error-messages-in-python-311) and [PEP 657](https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/).
+
+### Exception Groups
+
+Use `ExceptionGroup` and `except*` to handle several errors at once:
+
+```pycon
+>>> try:
+...     raise ExceptionGroup(
+...         "group", [TypeError("str"), ValueError(654), TypeError("int")]
+...     )
+... except* ValueError as eg:
+...     print(f"Handling ValueErrors: {eg.exceptions}")
+...
+Handling ValueErrors: (ValueError(654),)
+  + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
+  |   ...
+  | ExceptionGroup: group (2 sub-exceptions)
+  +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
+    | TypeError: str
+    +---------------- 2 ----------------
+    | TypeError: int
+    +------------------------------------
+```
+
+See [Exception Groups and `except*` in Python 3.11](https://realpython.com/python311-exception-groups/#exception-groups-and-except-in-python-311) and [PEP 654](https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/).
+
+### Task Groups
+
+Run [`count.py`](count.py), [`count_gather.py`](count_gather.py), and [`count_taskgroup.py`](count_taskgroup.py) and compare their behaviors. For example:
+
+```console
+$ python count_taskgroup.py scientists.py rot13.txt count.py 
+scientists.py        □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□ (44)
+Files with thirteen lines are too scary!
+count.py             □□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□□ (32)
+```
+
+See [Asynchronous Task Groups in Python 3.11](https://realpython.com/python311-exception-groups/#asynchronous-task-groups-in-python-311) and [BPO 46752](https://github.com/python/cpython/pull/31270).
+
+### `tomllib`
+
+[`python_info.toml`](python_info.toml) and [`tomli_pyproject.toml`](tomli_pyproject.toml) show two examples of TOML files.
+
+Use [`read_toml.py`](read_toml.py) to read them:
+
+```console
+$ python read_toml.py python_info.toml tomli_pyproject.toml 
+======================python_info.toml======================
+{'python': {'version': 3.11,
+            'release_manager': 'Pablo Galindo Salgado',
+            'is_beta': True,
+            'beta_release': 3,
+            'release_date': datetime.date(2022, 6, 16),
+            'peps': [657, 654, 678, 680, 673, 675, 646, 659]}}
+====================tomli_pyproject.toml====================
+{'build-system': {'requires': ['flit_core>=3.2.0,<4'],
+                  'build-backend': 'flit_core.buildapi'},
+ 'project': {'name': 'tomli',
+             'version': '2.0.1',
+             'description': "A lil' TOML parser",
+             'requires-python': '>=3.7',
+             'readme': 'README.md',
+             'keywords': ['toml'],
+             'urls': {'Homepage': 'https://github.com/hukkin/tomli',
+                      'PyPI': 'https://pypi.org/project/tomli'}}}
+```
+
+[`tomllib_w.py`](tomllib_w.py) shows how you can write simplified TOML files:
+
+```pycon
+>>> import tomllib_w
+>>> data = {"url": "https://realpython.com/python311-tomllib/",
+...     "author": {"name": "Geir Arne Hjelle", "email": "[email protected]"}}
+
+>>> print(tomllib_w.dumps(data))
+url = "https://realpython.com/python311-tomllib/"
+
+[author]
+name = "Geir Arne Hjelle"
+email = "[email protected]"
+```
+
+See [`tomllib` TOML Parser in Python 3.11](https://realpython.com/python311-tomllib/#tomllib-toml-parser-in-python-311) and [PEP 680](https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/).
+
+### `Self` Type
+
+[`polar_point.py`](polar_point.py) uses `Self` for annotation:
+
+```console
+$ python polar_point.py 
+PolarPoint(r=5.0, φ=0.9272952180016122)
+```
+
+See [`Self` Type](https://realpython.com/python311-tomllib/#self-type) and [PEP 673](https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/).
+
+### Arbitrary `LiteralString` Type
+
+[`execute_sql.py`](execute_sql.py) shows an example of `LiteralString`:
+
+```console
+$ python execute_sql.py 
+Pretending to execute: SELECT * FROM users
+Pretending to execute: SELECT * FROM users
+
+Enter table name: users; DROP TABLE users; --
+Pretending to execute: SELECT * FROM users; DROP TABLE users; --
+```
+
+See [Arbitrary Literal String Type](https://realpython.com/python311-tomllib/#arbitrary-literal-string-type) and [PEP 675](https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/).
+
+### Variadic Generic Types: `TypeVarTuple`
+
+[`ndarray.py`](ndarray.py) shows an example of using `TypeVarTuple`.
+
+See [Variadic Generic Types](https://realpython.com/python311-tomllib/#variadic-generic-types) and [PEP 646](https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/).
+
+### Exception Annotations
+
+Use `.add_notes()` to annotate exceptions with custom notes:
+
+```pycon
+>>> err = ValueError(678)
+>>> err.add_note("Enriching Exceptions with Notes")
+>>> err.add_note("Python 3.11")
+
+>>> err.__notes__
+['Enriching Exceptions with Notes', 'Python 3.11']
+>>> for note in err.__notes__:
+...     print(note)
+...
+Enriching Exceptions with Notes
+Python 3.11
+
+>>> raise err
+Traceback (most recent call last):
+  ...
+ValueError: 678
+Enriching Exceptions with Notes
+Python 3.11
+```
+
+See [Annotate Exceptions With Custom Notes](https://realpython.com/python311-exception-groups/#annotate-exceptions-with-custom-notes) and [PEP 678](https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/).
+
+### Reference Active Exceptions
+
+You can use `sys.exception()` to access the active exception:
+
+```pycon
+>>> import sys
+
+>>> try:
+...     raise ValueError("bpo-46328")
+... except ValueError:
+...     print(f"Handling {sys.exception()}")
+...
+Handling bpo-46328
+```
+
+Note that this is typically not necessary in regular code. You can use the `except ValueError as err` syntax instead.
+
+See [Reference the Active Exception With `sys.exception()`](https://realpython.com/python311-exception-groups/#reference-the-active-exception-with-sysexception) and [BPO 46328](https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90486).
+
+### Consistent Tracebacks
+
+`traceback_demo.py` shows that tracebacks can be consistently accessed through the exception object:
+
+```console
+$ python traceback_demo.py 
+tb_last(exc_value.__traceback__) = 'bad_calculation:13'
+tb_last(exc_tb)                  = 'bad_calculation:13'
+```
+
+See [Reference the Active Traceback Consistently](https://realpython.com/python311-exception-groups/#reference-the-active-traceback-consistently) and [BPO 45711](https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89874).
+
+### New Math Functions: `cbrt()` and `exp2()`
+
+You can use `math.cbrt()` to calculate cube roots:
+
+```pycon
+>>> import math
+>>> math.cbrt(729)
+9.000000000000002
+
+>>> 729**(1/3)
+8.999999999999998
+
+>>> math.pow(729, 1/3)
+8.999999999999998
+```
+
+You can use `math.exp2()` to calculate powers of two:
+
+```pycon
+>>> import math
+>>> math.exp2(16)
+65536.0
+
+>>> 2**16
+65536
+
+>>> math.pow(2, 16)
+65536.0
+```
+
+See [Cube Roots and Powers of Two](https://realpython.com/python311-error-messages/#cube-roots-and-powers-of-two), [BPO 44357](https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88523) and [BPO 45917](https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90075).
+
+### Underscores in Fractions
+
+You can use underscores when defining fractions from strings:
+
+```pycon
+>>> from fractions import Fraction
+>>> print(Fraction("6_024/1_729"))
+6024/1729
+```
+
+See [Underscores in Fractions](https://realpython.com/python311-error-messages/#underscores-in-fractions) and [BPO 44258](https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88424).
+
+### Flexible Calling of Objects: `operator.call()`
+
+The Norwegian calculator implemented in [`kalkulator.py`](kalkulator.py) uses `operator.call()`:
+
+```pycon
+>>> import kalkulator
+>>> kalkulator.calculate("20 pluss 22")
+42.0
+
+>>> kalkulator.calculate("11 delt på 3")
+3.6666666666666665
+```
+
+See [Flexible Calling of Objects](https://realpython.com/python311-error-messages/#flexible-calling-of-objects) and [BPO 44019](https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88185).
+
+## Author
+
+- **Geir Arne Hjelle**, E-mail: [[email protected]]([email protected])
+
+## License
+
+Distributed under the MIT license. See [`LICENSE`](../LICENSE) for more information.

python-311/count.py

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+import sys
+import time
+
+import colorama
+from colorama import Cursor
+
+colorama.init()
+
+
+def print_at(row, text):
+    print(Cursor.POS(1, 1 + row) + str(text))
+    time.sleep(0.03)
+
+
+def count_lines_in_file(file_num, file_name):
+    counter_text = f"{file_name[:20]:<20} "
+    with open(file_name, mode="rt", encoding="utf-8") as file:
+        for line_num, _ in enumerate(file, start=1):
+            counter_text += "□"
+            print_at(file_num, counter_text)
+        print_at(file_num, f"{counter_text} ({line_num})")
+
+
+def count_all_files(file_names):
+    for file_num, file_name in enumerate(file_names, start=1):
+        count_lines_in_file(file_num, file_name)
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    print(colorama.ansi.clear_screen())
+    count_all_files(sys.argv[1:])
+    print(Cursor.POS(1, 1 + len(sys.argv)))

python-311/count_gather.py

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+import asyncio
+import sys
+
+import colorama
+from colorama import Cursor
+
+colorama.init()
+
+
+async def print_at(row, text):
+    print(Cursor.POS(1, 1 + row) + str(text))
+    await asyncio.sleep(0.03)
+
+
+async def count_lines_in_file(file_num, file_name):
+    counter_text = f"{file_name[:20]:<20} "
+    with open(file_name, mode="rt", encoding="utf-8") as file:
+        for line_num, _ in enumerate(file, start=1):
+            counter_text += "□"
+            await print_at(file_num, counter_text)
+        await print_at(file_num, f"{counter_text} ({line_num})")
+
+
+async def count_all_files(file_names):
+    tasks = [
+        asyncio.create_task(count_lines_in_file(file_num, file_name))
+        for file_num, file_name in enumerate(file_names, start=1)
+    ]
+    await asyncio.gather(*tasks)
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    print(colorama.ansi.clear_screen())
+    asyncio.run(count_all_files(sys.argv[1:]))
+    print(Cursor.POS(1, 1 + len(sys.argv)))