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‎docs/document/Articles/docs/Google Hack Syntax.md‎

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# Google Hack Syntax
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## Operators
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- `NOT` or `-`: exclude a word from search result
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- `OR` or `|`: match one of the phrase, `foo | bar | baz`
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- `"<phrase>"`: exact match
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- `()`: group any expression
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```txt
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# foo is mandatory, bar and baz are optional
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foo (bar | baz)
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```
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- `.`: any character
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- `*`: any phrase
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> [!TIP]
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> Use `""` to represent raw string when you need to contain any special character above in your query
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## Keywords
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> [!NOTE]
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> Do not leave spaces between keyword operator and the followed query
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> You can use exact match `""` after keyword operator
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> Wildcard not allowed in query after keyword operator
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> not a exhaustive list but practical enough
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- `intitle:`: contains phrase in title
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- `inurl:`: match phrase in page url
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- `intext:`: match phrase in `<body>` section of a page
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- `inanchor:`: match links of anchors in the page
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- `site:`: match by top-level domain
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- `cache:`: finds snapshot of page, specify url after it
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- `filetype:`: specify only one filetype, use `OR` if multiple filetypes are desired
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## Best Practice
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Ordering your query by `<normal query>[<operator options>][<keyword options>]` would be the best practice
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```
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I need foo -bar site:foo intitle:foo
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```

‎docs/document/Modern CSharp/docs/Understanding String Formatting.md‎

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- supported for `Double`, `Single`, `Half` and `BigInteger` only.
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- ensures the converted string represents the exact precision of the number.
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#### Arbitrary Format Composition
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### Arbitrary Numeric Format Composition
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Composite formatting supports a dedicated syntax to represent any numeric format by following convention
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```
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- `\` to escape any special character above
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## `ToString` & `IFormattable`
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### DateTime Format
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> [!NOTE]
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> See [standard datetime format](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/standard/base-types/standard-date-and-time-format-strings) and [Arbitrary datetime format](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/standard/base-types/custom-date-and-time-format-strings)
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### TimeSpan Format
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> [!NOTE]
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> See [standard TimeSpan format](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/standard/base-types/standard-timespan-format-strings#the-general-long-g-format-specifier) and [Arbitrary TimeSpan format](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/standard/base-types/custom-timespan-format-strings)
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## How to Support a Custom Format
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Before we implement a custom process for our format, we have to understand the common interfaces for formatting.
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### `IFormatProvider`
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`System.IFormatProvider` acts like a wrapper to cover generic solution for formatting.
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The return type is `object` which means the *format* to be returned here can be any kind of representation, the use is really dependent on the method that uses the `IFormatProvider`.
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The *format* object returned may contain some **culture-related information**, such as negative sign for numerics. And the object is usually a `IFormatProvider` too.
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```cs
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public interface IFormatProvider
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{
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object? GetFormat(Type? formatType);
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}
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```
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The parameter is the type of the type should handle the *format* so we can return different formatting solution for different kinds of values.
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That is to say, we commonly have a conditional statement inside the implementation of `IFormatProvider.GetFormat`.
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`CultureInfo` is typically a `IFormatProvider` that hanles numeric and datetime in `IFormatProvider.GetFormat(Type? type)`
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```cs
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// implementation in CultureInfo
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public virtual object? GetFormat(Type? formatType)
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{
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if (formatType == typeof(NumberFormatInfo))
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{
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return NumberFormat; // [!code highlight]
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}
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if (formatType == typeof(DateTimeFormatInfo))
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{
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return DateTimeFormat;
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}
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return null;
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}
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// where NumberFormat is a process to generate a NumerFormatInfo based on Culture
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public virtual NumberFormatInfo NumberFormat
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{
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get
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{
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if (_numInfo == null)
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{
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NumberFormatInfo temp = new NumberFormatInfo(_cultureData); // [!code highlight]
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temp._isReadOnly = _isReadOnly;
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Interlocked.CompareExchange(ref _numInfo, temp, null);
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}
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return _numInfo!;
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}
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set
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{
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ArgumentNullException.ThrowIfNull(value);
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VerifyWritable();
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_numInfo = value;
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}
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}
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```
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The actual usage of `GetFormat` inside the caller method is like
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```cs
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var provider = new CultureInfo("en-US");
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var format = (NumberFormatInfo)provider.GetFormat(typeof(NumberFormatInfo));
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```
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It's kind of strange that you already know the type of *format* but still, it's just an identification on what kind of the handler should be returned.
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And the `Type` should be the optimal solution since we don't know what would be formatted anyway, so we can't say there can here a enumeration as parameter.
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### `ICustomFormatter`
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Implementing `ICustomFormatter` means the type can handle formatting for a single value as a external handler
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- `format`: the format for the value
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- `arg`: the value
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- `formatProvider`: provider for formatting
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```cs
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public interface ICustomFormatter
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{
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string Format(string? format, object? arg, IFormatProvider? formatProvider);
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}
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```
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We always implement both `IFormatProvider` and `ICustomFormatter` if you want to customize your own format for any type(even existing types since `ICustomFormatter` has higher priority)
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**That is because composite formatting methods only accepts `IFormatProvider` as an variant supplier**, it's a good practice to do it in a same type.
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And the identity as a `ICustomFormatter` should always be provided from `IFormatProvider.GetFormat`
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The way to retrieve a `ICustomFormatter` inside a composite formatting method is like
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```cs
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ICustomFormatter? cf = (ICustomFormatter?)provider?.GetFormat(typeof(ICustomFormatter)); // [!code highlight]
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// .. a super long process to parse the whole format string
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if (cf != null)
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{
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s = cf.Format(itemFormat, arg, provider); // [!code highlight]
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}
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```
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> [!NOTE]
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> `typeof(ICustomFormatter)` is the only possible identification here, because it's a custom, external way.
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While in the implementation side, the `ICustomFormatter` should be returned in `IFormatProvider.GetFormat` just like
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```cs
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class CustomFormatter : IFormatProvider, ICustomFormatter
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{
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public object GetFormat(Type? formatType)
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{
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if (formatType == typeof(ICustomFormatter))
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return this; // [!code highlight]
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else
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{
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// ... handle other types
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}
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}
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public string Format(string? format, object? arg, IFormatProvider? formatProvider)
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{
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Type? type = arg?.GetType();
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if (type == typeof(long))
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{
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//...
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}
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else if (type == typeof(int))
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{
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// ...
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}
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}
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}
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```
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### `IFormattable`
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Implementing `IFormattable` means the type itself can handle the formatting for the value it represents.
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- `format`: the format for the value
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- `formatProvider`: provider used for the formatting
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```cs
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public interface IFormattable
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{
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string ToString(string? format, IFormatProvider? formatProvider);
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}
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```
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```cs
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class CustomObject : IFormattable
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{
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public string ToString(string format, IFormatProvider? provider)
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{
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if (String.IsNullOrEmpty(format)) format = "G"; // use G as general // [!code highlight]
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provider ??= CultureInfo.CurrentCulture; // [!code highlight]
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switch (format.ToUpperInvariant()) // [!code highlight]
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{
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case "G":
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case "C":
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case "F":
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case "K":
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default:
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throw new FormatException(string.Format("The {0} format string is not supported.", format));
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}
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}
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}
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```
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## Formatting Strategy
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We already knew that the approaches how dotnet handles formatting for builtin types and custom types.
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Those solutions are all tried on methods like `string.Format` with following order.
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- If the value to be formatted is `null`, returns `string.Empty`
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- If the `IFormatProvider` secified is `ICustomFormatter`, `ICustomFormatter.Format(string? fmt, IFormatProvider? fmtProvider)` would be called
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- If `ICustomFormatter.Format` returns `null` for current value, steps into next solution.
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- If `IFormatProvider` is specified
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- If the value is `IFormattable`, `IFormattable.ToString(string fmt, IFormatProvider? fmtProvider)` is called
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- `object.ToString` or overrided version was called if all approaches above are failed.
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```cs
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ICustomFormatter? cf = (ICustomFormatter?)provider?.GetFormat(typeof(ICustomFormatter)); // [!code highlight]
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string? s = null;
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if (cf != null)
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{
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if (!itemFormatSpan.IsEmpty)
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{
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itemFormat = new string(itemFormatSpan);
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}
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s = cf.Format(itemFormat, arg, provider); // [!code highlight]
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}
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if (s == null) // if ICustomFormatter.Format returns null // [!code highlight]
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{
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// If arg is ISpanFormattable and the beginning doesn't need padding,
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// try formatting it into the remaining current chunk.
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if ((leftJustify || width == 0) &&
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arg is ISpanFormattable spanFormattableArg &&
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spanFormattableArg.TryFormat(_chars.Slice(_pos), out int charsWritten, itemFormatSpan, provider))
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{
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// ..
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}
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if (arg is IFormattable formattableArg) // [!code highlight]
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{
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if (itemFormatSpan.Length != 0)
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{
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itemFormat ??= new string(itemFormatSpan);
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}
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s = formattableArg.ToString(itemFormat, provider); // [!code highlight]
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}
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else
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{
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s = arg?.ToString(); // object.ToString as the last resort // [!code highlight]
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}
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s ??= string.Empty; // if all solution were tried but still null // [!code highlight]
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}
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```
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> [!NOTE]
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> `ISpanFormattable` is a more advance topic since .NET 6.

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