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<title>LBK settlement network in the eastern part of the Wiśnicz Foothills.</title>
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<h1 class="title">LBK settlement network in the eastern part of the Wiśnicz Foothills.</h1>
<p class="subtitle lead">Poster for 2nd Conference Archaeology of the Moutains (Zakopane, 14-16 June 2023)</p>
</div>
<div class="quarto-title-meta-author">
<div class="quarto-title-meta-heading">Author</div>
<div class="quarto-title-meta-heading">Affiliation</div>
<div class="quarto-title-meta-contents">
Tomasz Oberc
</div>
<div class="quarto-title-meta-contents">
<p class="affiliation">
Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology PAS, Kraków, PL
</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="quarto-title-meta">
</div>
</header>
<section id="introduction" class="level2">
<h2 class="anchored" data-anchor-id="introduction">Introduction</h2>
<p>The Foothills of the Northern Carpathian region were an important part of ecumene of the Linear Pottery Culture (LBK). Multiple sites associated with this archaeological taxon can be found near the Raba basin in region of Wieliczka and Bochnia, as well as in the Rzeszów Foothills (<a href="#fig-1">Figure 1</a>). Among these, the complex of LBK sites in the Dunajec basin stands out, as most distant from settlement centres. They also represent a bit different settlement system than clusters uncovered in the upland areas: the sites are mostly localized in the highest points in local topography and show higher degree of centralization <span class="citation" data-cites="kukulkaWczesnoneolitycznaOsadaGwozdzcu2001 czekaj-zastawnyOsadnictwoSpolecznosciKultury2008 valde-nowakEarlyFarmingAdaptation2009">[<a href="#ref-kukulkaWczesnoneolitycznaOsadaGwozdzcu2001" role="doc-biblioref">1</a>–<a href="#ref-valde-nowakEarlyFarmingAdaptation2009" role="doc-biblioref">3</a>]</span>. One way, in which this phenomenon could be explained, concerning the natural factors such as distribution of slopes covered by good soils, with enough solar radiation was already explored on few occasions <span class="citation" data-cites="cappenbergLandscapeFeatureUsing2014 obercAnalizaObszaruEksploatacji2021">[<a href="#ref-cappenbergLandscapeFeatureUsing2014" role="doc-biblioref">4</a>,<a href="#ref-obercAnalizaObszaruEksploatacji2021" role="doc-biblioref">5</a>]</span>. The aim of this study is to include chronological data in analysis of this settlement system. Additionally, a spatiotemporal density model was made, that included area most endangered with slope erosion.</p>
<div id="fig-1" class="quarto-figure quarto-figure-center anchored">
<figure class="figure">
<p><img src="https://github.com/smiergahttu/LBKfoothillsPL/blob/main/fig1-1.jpg?raw=true" class="img-fluid figure-img"></p>
<p></p><figcaption class="figure-caption">Figure 1: A - Localization of the study area and a distribution of the LBK sites in Lesser Poland (after: <span class="citation" data-cites="czekaj-zastawnyOsadnictwoSpolecznosciKultury2008">[<a href="#ref-czekaj-zastawnyOsadnictwoSpolecznosciKultury2008" role="doc-biblioref">2</a>]</span>, Map 1 with changes); B - sites associated with LBK in the study area (data from Polish Archaeological Record).</figcaption><p></p>
</figure>
</div>
</section>
<section id="chronological-model-data-and-assumptions" class="level2">
<h2 class="anchored" data-anchor-id="chronological-model-data-and-assumptions">Chronological Model: Data and Assumptions</h2>
<p>To reconstruct LBK network changes in time, a fuzzy logic approach has been used, based on the probability distributions of radiocarbon dates in consecutive centuries. Firstly, a chronological model was built, based on 53 radiocarbon dates from LBK sites in foothills areas (Brzezie 17, Gwoździec 2, Targowisko 11, Łoniowa 18, Żerków 1, Zagórze 2 and Zwięczyca 3; for full list, description and source of data see <span class="citation" data-cites="obercRadiocarbonDatingLinear2022">[<a href="#ref-obercRadiocarbonDatingLinear2022" role="doc-biblioref">6</a>, Tab. 1]</span> or <a href="https://github.com/smiergahttu/LBKfoothillsPL/blob/main/LBK_fthlls.csv">here</a>. From these sites, chronometric determinations with standard deviation below 100 radiocarbon years were used. The model was developed in the Bchron package for R Language (BchronDensity; <span class="citation" data-cites="haslettSimpleMonotoneProcess2008">[<a href="#ref-haslettSimpleMonotoneProcess2008" role="doc-biblioref">7</a>]</span>). Relative chronology based on pottery stylistics was not employed in this analysis. As have been shown, the actual model of stylistic changes in LBK has limited use in chronology, especially in this area <span class="citation" data-cites="obercRadiocarbonDatingLinear2022 czekaj-zastawnyChronologiaOsadyChronology2021">[<a href="#ref-obercRadiocarbonDatingLinear2022" role="doc-biblioref">6</a>,<a href="#ref-czekaj-zastawnyChronologiaOsadyChronology2021" role="doc-biblioref">8</a>]</span>. Recent chronological models of LBK suggest, that it likely appear the Northern Carpathian region around or after 5400 BC <span class="citation" data-cites="jakucsVincaLinearbandkeramikWorlds2016 kozlowskiPrzyszliLudzieZza2019">[<a href="#ref-jakucsVincaLinearbandkeramikWorlds2016" role="doc-biblioref">9</a>,<a href="#ref-kozlowskiPrzyszliLudzieZza2019" role="doc-biblioref">10</a>]</span>. Although, resulting probability extends up to the date 4500 (<a href="#fig-2">Figure 2</a>, A: red), a comparison with a radiocarbon date from the feature of Malice culture from Łoniowa 18 (<span class="citation" data-cites="valde-nowakEarlyFarmingAdaptation2009">[<a href="#ref-valde-nowakEarlyFarmingAdaptation2009" role="doc-biblioref">3</a>]</span>, pp. 23, Tab 1, sample Ło 1; see <a href="#fig-2">Figure 2</a>, A: blue) and the analysis of the LBK dating from Wiśnicz Foothills suggest a low probability of a LBK activity in the area later than 5000 <span class="citation" data-cites="czekaj-zastawnyChronologiaOsadyChronology2021">[<a href="#ref-czekaj-zastawnyChronologiaOsadyChronology2021" role="doc-biblioref">8</a>]</span>. Therefore, it was assumed, that all activity represented by the model after 4800 BC is associated with later archaeological taxons.</p>
<div id="fig-2" class="quarto-figure quarto-figure-center anchored">
<figure class="figure">
<p><img src="https://github.com/smiergahttu/LBKfoothillsPL/blob/main/fig2-1.jpg?raw=true" class="img-fluid figure-img"></p>
<p></p><figcaption class="figure-caption">Figure 2: A - a plot of distribution of probability based on model for LBK in Foothils region (red - LBK model; blue – Radiocarbon dating from feature of Malice culture in Łoniowa 18; see text for more details); B - a barplot of binned probability distribution used in the study (Gwo2 - 106-64/27, Żer1 - 106-63/65, Łon18 - 106-63/18); see text for details.</figcaption><p></p>
</figure>
</div>
</section>
<section id="the-model-of-dynamic-lbk-settlement-network" class="level2">
<h2 class="anchored" data-anchor-id="the-model-of-dynamic-lbk-settlement-network">The Model of Dynamic LBK Settlement Network</h2>
<p>According to these assumptions, the distribution of the probability was therefore remodelled and normalized to the period between 5400-4800 BC and binned into 100 years ranges (<a href="https://github.com/smiergahttu/LBKfoothillsPL/blob/main/dens_LBKfoothilsPL.R">the R code for procedure</a>). For each of these periods, a probability has been ascribed to the known sites, with additional weight scale based in their classification (settlements – 3, campsites – 2, trace of activity – 1). Sites in Gwoździec, Łoniowa, and Żerków (106-64/27, 106-63/80, 106-63/65) were given unique distributions, based on the dates obtained from the sites (<a href="#fig-2">Figure 2</a>, B). In case of Gwoździec, a distribution has been calculated on the basis Start and End boundaries resulting from Bayesian modelling <span class="citation" data-cites="czekaj-zastawnyChronologiaOsadyChronology2021">[<a href="#ref-czekaj-zastawnyChronologiaOsadyChronology2021" role="doc-biblioref">8</a>, Fig. 179]</span>, resulting in certainty (in given assumptions) of being active in 53nd century BC. The results are presented in the form of heatmaps (<a href="#fig-3">Figure 3</a>). The network model was constructed with an anisotropic cost of movement estimation – by r.walk algorithm (GRASS 7). In addition to using DEM as an input, it was assumed, that vegetation, the running water are most common hindrance of movement. As a representation of these factors, an additional cost was represented by TWI measure (Topographic Wetness Index; calculated in Basic Terrain Analysis algorithm of Saga GIS module in QGIS). An “importance” of every path between settlements was calculated as mean values of probability assigned to its start and end points for given period. Additionally, these values were weighted by the cumulated cost of the paths. This measure represents an idea, that settlers were more likely to interact with closer than more distant neighbours.</p>
<div id="fig-3" class="quarto-figure quarto-figure-center anchored">
<figure class="figure">
<p><img src="https://github.com/smiergahttu/LBKfoothillsPL/blob/main/fig3-1.gif?raw=true" class="img-fluid figure-img"></p>
<p></p><figcaption class="figure-caption">Figure 3: KDE and weight of connections between settlements.</figcaption><p></p>
</figure>
</div>
<p>The resulting picture suggests emergence of network organized by pronounced routs between the “peripheral” and central settlements after year 5300 BC. The central cluster of Biesiadki-Łoniowa-Żerków sites possibly was established even in the (late?) 54 c. BC. In the following century, the Eastern cluster seems to host some part of overall activity, with possible tertiary role of the Southern one. In the 52nd century the network is more balanced, with lesser differences between „periferal-periferal” and „periferal-central” connections. At the same time, most of activity is still associated with the center of the cluster, with lesser role of the Eastern part. Intensification is seen in the Southern sub cluster – region of Tworkowa 19 (107-63/43). In the 51st century BC the network is sparser, with a steady activity in the Southern branch. The system is slowly fading throughout the next two centuries. Unfortunately, there is not enough data to explain the role of sites in Sufczyn 32 and Uszew 19 (105-64/97 and 105-63/28) in the early stages – that of most centralized network. Given the lack of known LBK sites further to the South as far as the Poprad valley, it seems likely, that they played a major role in establishing LBK settlement network in this area. Also a role in the system of the „cluster” of sites around Gnojnik 4 (106-63/4) remains unknown.</p>
</section>
<section id="the-erosion-and-missing-sites" class="level2">
<h2 class="anchored" data-anchor-id="the-erosion-and-missing-sites">The Erosion and „Missing” Sites</h2>
<p>The second aim of the study was to estimate an effect of the soil erosion on the observed network. The problem has been shown for example during analysis of finds from Gwoździec <span class="citation" data-cites="kukulkaWczesnoneolitycznaOsadaGwozdzcu2001 kenigStanZachowaniaMaterialow2021">[<a href="#ref-kukulkaWczesnoneolitycznaOsadaGwozdzcu2001" role="doc-biblioref">1</a>,<a href="#ref-kenigStanZachowaniaMaterialow2021" role="doc-biblioref">11</a>]</span>. As a measure of susceptibility of the area to erosion, LS-Factor was used (measure of length and steepness of slopes; see <span class="citation" data-cites="panagosNewEuropeanSlope2015">[<a href="#ref-panagosNewEuropeanSlope2015" role="doc-biblioref">12</a>]</span>). Most analysed sites have been found in areas of relatively low values (<a href="#fig-4">Figure 4</a>, A). In aim to estimate proportion of the area, where traces of past activity could have been destroyed, regions with an average LS-Factor values over 2 was marked (on raster downsampled to 50x50m). Noticeably, this boundary encloses most of mapped modern landslides (<a href="#fig-4">Figure 4</a>, B and C, source: <a href="https://dane.gov.pl/pl/dataset/1297/resource/35123/table">Osuwiska i tereny zagrożone ruchami masowymi - usługa WMS</a>).</p>
<div id="fig-4" class="quarto-figure quarto-figure-center anchored">
<figure class="figure">
<p><img src="https://github.com/smiergahttu/LBKfoothillsPL/blob/main/fig4-1.jpg?raw=true" class="img-fluid figure-img"></p>
<p></p><figcaption class="figure-caption">Figure 4: A - Differentiation of area by LS-Factor; B, C - localization of landslides (pink - active, violet - periodic, gray - inactive; <a href="https://dane.gov.pl/pl/dataset/1297/resource/35123/table">source</a>).</figcaption><p></p>
</figure>
</div>
<p>Out of 27 LKB sites, only one have been discovered within these boundaries. Unfortunately, as more sophisticated predictive modelling of archaeological sites relies heavily on data derived from the land form (slopes, aspects, relative altitudes, insolation, visibility or TWI used before), they are unreliable in this situation. Instead, a simple approach has been used to accommodate for potentially missing sites. Basing of density and mean minimal distance between known LBK sites in low LS-Factor areas, sixteen new points was generated in semi-random locations within regions of high LS-Factor values. The new model of spatiotemporal density has been generated, however this time without any additional weights on the sites (<a href="#fig-5">Figure 5</a>). The resulting areas of potential activity of LBK people are larger, than in the previous models, although, the general tendency toward high centralization in the 53rd and 52nd centuries BC is maintained. It should be added, however, that the models did not account for the Dunajec valley, which, judging on the density of known sites in its vicinity, was likely used in this time.</p>
<div id="fig-5" class="quarto-figure quarto-figure-center anchored">
<figure class="figure">
<p><img src="https://github.com/smiergahttu/LBKfoothillsPL/blob/main/fig5-2.gif?raw=true" class="img-fluid figure-img"></p>
<p></p><figcaption class="figure-caption">Figure 5: Simulated spatiotemporal density of LBK activity.</figcaption><p></p>
</figure>
</div>
</section>
<section id="summary" class="level2">
<h2 class="anchored" data-anchor-id="summary">Summary</h2>
<p>LBK network in analysed area was likely a dynamic one. As can be judged from the radiocarbon data, as well as archaeological material (e.g. composition of lithic raw materials with high percentage of flints from Kraków-Czestochowa Upland and presence of obsidian, or changes in pottery stylistics with presence of ceramic imports), a communication between this and other settled regions was probably constantly maintained. Presented models, although they require further improvements, seem to add new layer to the history. Especially, a process of organized (and rapid?) colonization around 5300 BC, followed by gradual decentralization over next centuries constitutes an intriguing hypothesis that should be tested on the wider sample of the regions. Also, the later phases of occupation need more attention. Presented models, based on data from sites located closer to the centres of LBK ecumene, shows gradual vanishing of activity that contrasts with results of previous analysis <span class="citation" data-cites="czekaj-zastawnyChronologiaOsadyChronology2021">[<a href="#ref-czekaj-zastawnyChronologiaOsadyChronology2021" role="doc-biblioref">8</a>]</span>. This fact raises a question about character of post-LBK occupation present in this area (Malice culture, Samborzec-Opatów and Pleszów-Modlnica groups; see <span class="citation" data-cites="valde-nowakMalickieModlnickieSlady2020">[<a href="#ref-valde-nowakMalickieModlnickieSlady2020" role="doc-biblioref">13</a>]</span>. Unfortunately, more data from the area is needed to explore this problem.</p>
</section>
<div id="quarto-appendix" class="default"><section class="quarto-appendix-contents" role="doc-bibliography"><h2 class="anchored quarto-appendix-heading">References</h2><div id="refs" class="references csl-bib-body" role="doc-bibliography">
<div id="ref-kukulkaWczesnoneolitycznaOsadaGwozdzcu2001" class="csl-entry" role="doc-biblioentry">
<div class="csl-left-margin">1. </div><div class="csl-right-inline">Kukułka A (2001) Wczesnoneolityczna osada w <span>Gwoźdźcu</span>, gm. <span>Zakliczyn</span>, stan. 2 na <span>Pogórzu Wiśnickim</span>, In: Gancarski J (Ed.), <em>Neolit i początki epoki brązu w <span>Karpatach</span> polskich.</em>, <span>Krosno</span>, <span>Muzeum Podkarpackie w Krośnie</span>, 11–40.</div>
</div>
<div id="ref-czekaj-zastawnyOsadnictwoSpolecznosciKultury2008" class="csl-entry" role="doc-biblioentry">
<div class="csl-left-margin">2. </div><div class="csl-right-inline">Czekaj-Zastawny A (2008) Osadnictwo społeczności kultury ceramiki wstęgowej rytej w dorzeczu górnej <span>Wisły</span>, <span>Kraków</span>, <span>Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii PAN</span>.</div>
</div>
<div id="ref-valde-nowakEarlyFarmingAdaptation2009" class="csl-entry" role="doc-biblioentry">
<div class="csl-left-margin">3. </div><div class="csl-right-inline">Valde-Nowak P (2009) <a href="http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-13d82534-b9bf-4df3-844e-6ff94b600ffe">Early farming adaptation in the <span>Wiśnicz Foothills</span> in the <span>Carpathians</span>. <span>Settlements</span> at <span>Łoniowa</span> and <span>Żerków</span></a>. <em>Recherches Archéologiques Nouvelle Serie</em> 1: 15–35.</div>
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<div id="ref-cappenbergLandscapeFeatureUsing2014" class="csl-entry" role="doc-biblioentry">
<div class="csl-left-margin">4. </div><div class="csl-right-inline">Cappenberg K (2014) <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvqmp120">Landscape as a <span>Feature</span>: <span>Using GIS</span> to <span>Compare Two Types</span> of <span>Early Neolithic Sites</span> in <span>Lesser Poland</span></a>, In: Kienlin TL, Valde-Nowak P, Korczyńska M, et al. (Eds.), <em>Settlement, <span>Communication</span> and <span>Exchange</span> around the <span>Western Carpathians</span>: <span>International Workshop</span> held at the <span>Institute</span> of <span>Archaeology</span>, <span>Jagiellonian University</span>, <span>Kraków</span>, <span>October</span> 27–28, 2012</em>, <span>Archaeopress Publishing Ltd</span>.</div>
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<div id="ref-obercAnalizaObszaruEksploatacji2021" class="csl-entry" role="doc-biblioentry">
<div class="csl-left-margin">5. </div><div class="csl-right-inline">Oberc T, Jędrysik J (2021) <a href="https://rcin.org.pl/dlibra/publication/269557/edition/232833">4. <span>Analiza</span> obszaru eksploatacji wokół osady / 4. <span>Analysis</span> of exploitation area around the settlement</a>, In: Czekaj-Zastawny A, Rauba-Bukowska A, Kukułka A (Eds.), <em>Najstarsza osada kultury ceramiki wstęgowej rytej z terenu <span>Polski</span>. <span>Gwoździec</span> stan. 2, gm. <span>Zakliczyn</span></em>, <span>Kraków</span>, <span>Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii PAN, Muzeum Okręgowe w Tarnowie</span>, 295–312.</div>
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<div id="ref-obercRadiocarbonDatingLinear2022" class="csl-entry" role="doc-biblioentry">
<div class="csl-left-margin">6. </div><div class="csl-right-inline">Oberc T, Czekaj-Zastawny A, Rauba-Bukowska A (2022) Radiocarbon <span>Dating For The Linear Pottery Culture From The Territory Of Poland</span> - <span>Research Problems</span>, In: Grygiel M, Obst PJ (Eds.), <em>Walking <span>Among Ancient Trees</span>. <span>Studies</span> in honour of <span>Ryszard Grygiel</span> and <span>Peter Bogucki</span> on the 45th anniversary of their research collaboration.</em>, <span>Konrad Jażdżewski Foundation for Archaeological Research, Museum of Archeology and Ethnography in Łódź</span>, 183–212.</div>
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