GH-41536: [C++] Replace std::aligned_storage that is deprecated in C++23

[sjoubert]

This fixes #41536

Rationale for this change

C++23 deprecates std::aligned_storage. The recommended alternative is an array of std::byte properly marked with alignas(). This change is compatible with C++17 and should also allow users to compile their code in C++23 mode without deprecation warnings.

What changes are included in this PR?

This replaces std::aligned_storage as recommended and also removes a preprocessor define that was needed for MSVC.

However there is still one usage of std::aligned_storage in a conditional to work around a GCC bug on i386:

• I don't know if alignas as a replacement would have the same bug as the original alignof
• The original bug seems to be fixed but I'm not sure in which GCC version and I also don't know which minimal version of GCC needs to be supported by the arrow project

If someone can confirm that it is ok to clean the code and use the same code unconditionally I'll update my changes.

• GitHub Issue: [C++] std::aligned_storage is deprecated since C++23 #41536

[github-actions]

⚠️ GitHub issue #41536 has been automatically assigned in GitHub to PR creator.

[kou]

It seems that the i386 path is used by test-debian-10-cpp-i386: #13991 (comment)

Debian 10 reached EOL and we're using Debian 12. So we can remove the workaround for i386.

[pitrou]

@github-actions crossbow submit -g cpp

[github-actions]

Revision: 62c6887

Submitted crossbow builds: ursacomputing/crossbow @ actions-3dd272f526

Task	Status
example-cpp-minimal-build-static
example-cpp-minimal-build-static-system-dependency
example-cpp-tutorial
test-alpine-linux-cpp
test-build-cpp-fuzz
test-conda-cpp
test-conda-cpp-valgrind
test-cuda-cpp-ubuntu-20.04-cuda-11.2.2
test-cuda-cpp-ubuntu-22.04-cuda-11.7.1
test-debian-12-cpp-amd64
test-debian-12-cpp-i386
test-fedora-39-cpp
test-ubuntu-20.04-cpp
test-ubuntu-20.04-cpp-bundled
test-ubuntu-22.04-cpp
test-ubuntu-22.04-cpp-20
test-ubuntu-22.04-cpp-emscripten
test-ubuntu-22.04-cpp-no-threading
test-ubuntu-24.04-cpp
test-ubuntu-24.04-cpp-bundled-offline
test-ubuntu-24.04-cpp-gcc-13-bundled
test-ubuntu-24.04-cpp-gcc-14
test-ubuntu-24.04-cpp-minimal-with-formats
test-ubuntu-24.04-cpp-thread-sanitizer

[pitrou]

Looks good to me, thank you @sjoubert . CI failures are unrelated, I'll merge.

[conbench-apache-arrow]

After merging your PR, Conbench analyzed the 3 benchmarking runs that have been run so far on merge-commit 51d380c.

There were no benchmark performance regressions. 🎉

The full Conbench report has more details. It also includes information about 11 possible false positives for unstable benchmarks that are known to sometimes produce them.