Update (Nov. 28, 2025): Implemented collision attack prevention in VMUM and MUM-V3

• The attack is described in Issue#18
• The code in question looks like

    state ^= _vmum (data[i] ^ _vmum_factors[i], data[i + 1] ^ _vmum_factors[i + 1]));

It is easy to generate data which makes the 1st operand of _vmum to be zero. In this case whatever the second operand is, the hash will be generated the same. So an adversary can generate a lot of data with the same hash

• This is pretty common code mistake for a few fast hash-functions. At least I found the same vulnerability in wyhash and rapidhash
• After the code change, the safe variants of VMUM and MUM hashes are switched on by default. If you want previous variants, please use macros VMUM_V1 and MUM_V3 correspondingly. I believe there are still cases when they can be used, e.g. for hash tables in compilers.
• The fix consist of checking _vmum operands on zero and use nonzero value instead
  • all checks are implemented to avoid branch instruction generations to keep hash calculation pipeline going
  • still the checks increase length of critical paths of calculation
  • in most cases, new versions of VMUM and MUM generates the same hashes as the previous versions
• The fix results in slowing down hash speeds by about 10% according to my benchmarks
  • I updated all benchmark data related to the new versions of VMUM and MUM below

MUM Hash

• MUM hash is a fast non-cryptographic hash function suitable for different hash table implementations
• MUM means MUltiply and Mix
  • It is a name of the base transformation on which hashing is implemented
  • Modern processors have a fast logic to do long number multiplications
  • It is very attractive to use it for fast hashing
    • For example, 64x64-bit multiplication can do the same work as 32 shifts and additions
  • I'd like to call it Multiply and Reduce. Unfortunately, MUR (MUltiply and Rotate) is already taken for famous hashing technique designed by Austin Appleby
  • I've chosen the name also as the first release happened on Mother's day
• To use mum you just need one header file (mum.h)
• MUM hash passes all SMHasher tests
  • For comparison, only 4 out of 15 non-cryptographic hash functions in SMHasher passes the tests, e.g. well known FNV, Murmur2, Lookup, and Superfast hashes fail the tests
• MUM V3 hash does not pass the following tests of a more rigourous version of SMHasher:
  • It fails on Perlin noise and bad seeds tests. It means it still qualitative enough for the most applications
  • To make MUM V3 to pass the Rurban SMHasher, macro MUM_QUALITY has been added. Compilation with this defined macro makes MUM V3 to pass all tests of Rurban SMHasher. The slowdown is about 5% in average or 10% at most on keys of length 8. It also results in generating a target independent hash
• For historic reasons mum.h contains code for older version V1 and V2. You can switch them on by defining macros MUM_V1 and MUM_V2
• MUM algorithm is simpler than the VMUM one
• MUM is specifically designed to be fast on 64-bit CPUs
  • Still MUM will work for 32-bit CPUs and it will be sometimes faster than Spooky and City
• MUM has a fast startup. It is particular good to hash small keys which are prevalent in hash table applications

MUM implementation details

• Input 64-bit data is randomized by 64x64->128 bit multiplication and mixing high- and low-parts of the multiplication result by using addition. The result is mixed with the current internal state by using XOR
  • Instead of addition for mixing high- and low- parts, XOR could be used
    • Using addition instead of XOR improves performance by about 10% on Haswell and Power7
• Factor numbers, randomly generated with an equal probability of their bit values, are used for the multiplication
• When all factors are used once, the internal state is randomized, and the same factors are used again for subsequent data randomization
• The main loop is formed to be unrolled by the compiler to benefit from the the compiler instruction scheduling optimization and OOO (out-of-order) instruction execution in modern CPUs
• MUM code does not contain assembly (asm) code anymore. This makes MUM less machine-dependent. To have efficient mum implementation, the compiler should support 128-bit integer extension (true for GCC and Clang on many targets)

VMUM Hash

• VMUM is a vector variant of mum hashing (see below)
  • It uses target SIMD instructions (insns)
  • In comparison with mum v3, vmum considerably (up to 3 times) improves the speed of hashing mid-range (32 to 256 bytes) to long-range (more 256 bytes) length keys
  • As with previous mum hashing, to use vmum you just need one header file (vmum.h)
  • vmum source code is considerably smaller than that of extremely fast xxHash3 and th1ha2 and competes with them on hashing speed
  • vmum passes a more rigorous version of SMHasher

VMUM implementation details

• For long keys vmum uses vector insns:
  • AVX2 256-bit vector insns on x86-64
  • Neon 128-bit vector insns on aarch64
  • Altivec 128-bit vector insns on ppc64
  • There is a scalar emulation of the vector insns, too, for other targets
    • This could be useful for understanding used the vector operations used
• You can add usage of vector insns for other targets. For this you just need to add small functions _vmum_update_block, _vmum_zero_block, and _vmum_fold_block
  • For the beneficial usage of vector insns the target should have unsigned 32 x 32-bit -> 64-bit vector multiplication
• To run vector insns in parallel on OOO CPUs, two vmum code loops are formed to be unrolled by the compiler into one basic block
• I experimented a lot with other vector insns and found that the usage of carry-less (sometimes called polynomial) vector multiplication insns does not work well enough for hashing

VMUM and MUM benchmarking vs other famous hash functions

• Here are the results of benchmarking VMUM and MUM with the fastest non-cryptographic hash functions I know:
  • Google City64 (sources are taken from SMHasher)
  • Bob Jenkins Spooky (sources are taken from SMHasher)
  • Yann Collet's xxHash3 (sources are taken from the original repository)
• I also added J. Aumasson and D. Bernstein's SipHash24 for the comparison as it is a popular choice for hash table implementation these days
• A metro hash was added as people asked and as metro hash is claimed to be the fastest hash function
  • metro hash is not portable as others functions as it does not deal with the unaligned accesses problem on some targets
  • metro hash will produce different hash for LE/BE targets
• Measurements were done on 4 different architecture machines:
  • AMD Ryzen 9900X
  • Intel i5-1300K
  • IBM Power10
  • Apple M4 10 cores (mac mini)
• Hashing 10,000 of 16MB keys (bulk)
• Hashing 1,280M keys for all other length keys
• Each test was run 3 times and the minimal time was taken
  • GCC-14.2.1 was used on AMD and M4 machine, GCC-12.3.1 on Intel machine, GCC-11.5.0 was used on Power10
  • -O3 was used for all compilations
  • The keys were generated by rand calls
  • The keys were aligned to see a hashing speed better and to permit runs for Metro
  • Some people complaint that my comparison is unfair as most hash functions are not inlined
    • I believe that the interface is the part of the implementation. So when the interface does not provide an easy way for inlining, it is an implementation pitfall
    • Still to address the complaints I added -flto for benchmarking all hash functions excluding MUM and VMUM. This option makes cross-file inlining
• Here are graphs summarizing the measurements:

• Exact numbers are given in the last section

SMhasher Speed Measurements

• SMhasher also measures hash speeds. It uses the CPU cycle counter (__rtdc)
  • __rtdc-based measurements might be inaccurate for a small number of executed insns as the process can migrate, not all insns can retire, and CPU freq can be different. That is why I prefer long running benchmarks
• Here are the results on AMD Ryzen 9900X for the fastest quality hashes (chosen according to SMhasher bulk speed results from https://github.com/rurban/smhasher)
• More GB/sec is better. Less cycles/hash is better
• Some hashes are based on the use of x86_64 AES insns and are less portable. They are marked by "Yes" in the AES column
• The SLOC column gives the source code lines to implement the hash

Hash	AES	Bulk Speed (256KB): GB/s	Av. Speed on keys (1-32 bytes): cycles/hash	SLOC
VMUM-V2	-	103.7	16.4	459
VMUM-V1	-	143.5	16.8	459
MUM-V4	-	28.6	15.8	291
MUM-V3	-	40.4	16.3	291
xxh3	-	66.6	17.6	965
umash64	-	63.1	25.4	1097
FarmHash32	-	39.8	32.6	1423
wyhash	-	39.3	18.3	194
clhash	-	38.4	51.7	366
t1ha2_atonce	-	34.7	25.5	2262
t1ha0_aes_avx2	Yes	128.9	25.0	2262
gxhash64	Yes	197.1	27.9	274
aesni	Yes	38.7	28.5	132

Using cryptographic vs. non-cryptographic hash function

• People worrying about denial attacks based on generating hash collisions started to use cryptographic hash functions in hash tables
• Cryptographic functions are very slow
  • sha1 is about 20-30 times slower than MUM and City on the bulk speed tests
  • The new fastest cryptographic hash function SipHash is up to 10 times slower
• MUM and VMUM are also resistant to preimage attack (finding a key with a given hash)
  • To make hard moving to previous state values we use mostly 1-to-1 one way function lo(x*C) + hi(x*C) where C is a constant. Brute force solution of equation f(x) = a probably requires 2^63 tries. Another used function equation x ^ y = a has a 2^64 solutions. It complicates finding the overal solution further
• If somebody is not convinced, you can use randomly chosen multiplication constants (see functions mum_hash_randomize and vmum_hash_randomize). Finding a key with a given hash even if you know a key with such a hash probably will be close to finding two or more solutions of Diophantine equations
• If somebody is still not convinced, you can implement hash tables to recognize the attack and rebuild the table using the MUM function with the new multiplication constants
• Analogous approach can be used if you use weak hash function as MurMur or City. Instead of using cryptographic hash functions all the time, hash tables can be implemented to recognize the attack and rebuild the table and start using a cryptographic hash function
• This approach solves the speed problem and permits us to switch easily to a new cryptographic hash function if a flaw is found in the old one, e.g., switching from SipHash to SHA2

How to use [V]MUM

• Please just include file [v]mum.h into your C/C++ program and use the following functions:
  • optional [v]mum_hash_randomize for choosing multiplication constants randomly
  • [v]mum_hash_init, [v]mum_hash_step, and [v]mum_hash_finish for hashing complex data structures
  • [v]mum_hash64 for hashing a 64-bit data
  • [v]mum_hash for hashing any continuous block of data
  • Compile vmum.h with other code using options switching on vector insns if necessary (e.g. -mavx2 for x86_64)
• To compare MUM and VMUM speed with other hash functions on your machine go to the directory benchmarks and run a script ./bench.sh
• The script will compile source files and run the tests printing the results as a markdown table

Crypto-hash function MUM512

• [V]MUM is not designed to be a crypto-hash
  • The key (seed) and state are only 64-bit which are not crypto-level ones
  • The result can be different for different targets (BE/LE machines, 32- and 64-bit machines) as for other hash functions, e.g. City (hash can be different on SSE4.2 nad non SSE4.2 targets) or Spooky (BE/LE machines)
    • If you need the same MUM hash independent on the target, please define macro [V]MUM_TARGET_INDEPENDENT_HASH. Defining the macro affects the performace only on big-endian targets or targets without int128 support
• There is a variant of MUM called MUM512 which can be a candidate for a crypto-hash function and keyed crypto-hash function and might be interesting for researchers
  • The key is 256-bit
  • The state and the output are 512-bit
  • The block size is 512-bit
  • It uses 128x128->256-bit multiplication which is analogous to about 64 shifts and additions for 128-bit block word instead of 80 rounds of shifts, additions, logical operations for 512-bit block in sha2-512.
• It is only a candidate for a crypto hash function
  • I did not make any differential crypto-analysis or investigated probabilities of different attacks on the hash function (sorry, it is too big job)
    • I might be do this in the future as I am interested in differential characteristics of the MUM512 base transformation step (128x128-bit multiplications with addition of high and low 128-bit parts)
    • I am also interested in the right choice of the multiplication constants
    • May be somebody will do the analysis. I will be glad to hear anything. Who knows, may be it can be easily broken as Nimbus cipher.
  • The current code might be also vulnerable to timing attack on systems with varying multiplication instruction latency time. There is no code for now to prevent it
• To compare the MUM512 speed with the speed of SHA-2 (SHA512) and SHA-3 (SHA3-512) go to the directory benchmarks and run a script ./bench-crypto.sh
  • SHA-2 and SHA-3 code is taken from RHash
• Blake2 crypto-hash from github.com/BLAKE2/BLAKE2 was added for comparison. I use sse version of 64-bit Blake2 (blake2b).
• Here is the speed of the crypto hash functions on AMD 9900X:

	MUM512	SHA2	SHA3	Blake2B
10 bytes (20 M texts)	0.27s	0.27s	0.44s	0.81s
100 bytes (20 M texts)	0.36s	0.25s	0.84s	0.84s
1000 bytes (20 M texts)	1.21s	2.08s	5.63s	3.70s
10000 bytes (5 M texts)	5.60s	5.05s	14.07s	7.99s

Pseudo-random generators

• Files mum-prng.h and mum512-prng.h provide pseudo-random functions based on MUM and MUM512 hash functions
• All PRNGs passed NIST Statistical Test Suite for Random and Pseudorandom Number Generators for Cryptographic Applications (version 2.2.1) with 1000 bitstreams each containing 1M bits
  • Although MUM PRNG passed the test, it is not a cryptographically secure PRNG as is the hash function used for it
• To compare the PRNG speeds go to the directory benchmarks and run a script ./bench-prng.sh
• For the comparison I wrote crypto-secured Blum Blum Shub PRNG (file bbs-prng.h) and PRNGs based on fast cryto-level hash functions in ChaCha stream cipher (file chacha-prng.h) and SipHash24 (file sip24-prng.h).
  • The additional PRNGs also pass the Statistical Test Suite
• For the comparison I also added the fastest PRNGs
  • xoroshiro128+
  • xoroshiro128**
  • xoshiro256+
  • xoshiro256**
  • xoshiro512**
  • As recommended the first numbers generated by splitmix64 were used as a seed
• I had no intention to tune MUM based PRNG first but after adding xoroshiro128+ and finding how fast it is, I've decided to speedup MUM PRNG
  • I added code to calculate a few PRNs at once to calculate them in parallel
  • I added AVX2 version functions to use the faster MULX instruction
  • The new version also passed NIST Statistical Test Suite. It was tested even on bigger data (10K bitstreams each containing 10M bits). The test took several days on i7-4790K
  • The new version is almost 2 times faster than the old one and MUM PRN speed became almost the same as xoroshiro/xoshiro ones
    • All xoroshiro/xoshiro and MUM PRNG functions are inlined in the benchmark program
    • Both code without inlining will be visibly slower and the speed difference will be negligible as one PRN calculation takes only about 3-4 machine cycle for xoroshiro/xoshiro and MUM PRN.
• Update Nov.2 2019: I found that MUM PRNG fails practrand on 512GB. So I modified it. Instead of basically 16 independent PRNGs with 64-bit state, I made it one PRNG with 1024-bit state. I also managed to speed up MUM PRNG by 15%.
• All PRNG were tested by practrand with 4TB PRNG generated stream (it took a few days)
  • GLIBC RAND, xoroshiro128+, xoshiro256+, and xoshiro512+ failed on the first stages of practrand
  • The rest of the PRNGs passed
  • BBS PRNG was tested by only 64GB stream because it is too slow
• Here is the speed of the PRNGs in millions generated PRNs per second:

M prns/sec	AMD 9900X	Intel i5-1360K	Apple M4	Power10
BBS	0.0886	0.0827	0.122	0.021
ChaCha	357.68	184.80	262.81	83.20
SipHash24	702.10	567.43	760.13	231.48
MUM512	91.54	179.62	268.04	44.28
MUM	1947.27	1620.65	2263.68	694.42
XOSHIRO128**	1797.02	1386.87	1095.37	477.67
XOSHIRO256**	1866.35	1364.85	1466.15	607.65
XOSHIRO512**	1663.86	1235.15	1423.90	631.90
GLIBC RAND	115.57	101.48	228.99	33.66
XOROSHIRO128+	1786.62	1299.59	1296.48	549.85
XOSHIRO256+	2321.99	1720.67	1690.96	711.41
XOSHIRO512+	1808.81	1525.18	1659.76	717.12

Table results for hash speed measurements

• Here are table variants of my measurements for people wanting the exact numbers. The tables also contain time spent for hashing.

• AMD Ryzen 9900X:

Length	VMUM-V2	VMUM-V1	MUM-V4	MUM-V3	Spooky	City	xxHash3	t1ha2	SipHash24	Metro
3 bytes	1.00 4.57s	0.98 4.67s	0.98 4.64s	0.97 4.73s	0.76 6.01s	0.60 7.61s	0.94 4.84s	0.61 7.47s	0.61 7.51s	0.69 6.67s
4 bytes	1.00 2.77s	1.00 2.78s	1.09 2.55s	1.09 2.55s	0.55 5.08s	0.39 7.15s	0.71 3.92s	0.69 4.03s	0.44 6.24s	0.75 3.69s
5 bytes	1.00 4.63s	1.00 4.64s	1.00 4.62s	1.00 4.63s	0.80 5.78s	0.65 7.07s	0.88 5.28s	0.62 7.41s	0.61 7.59s	0.88 5.24s
6 bytes	1.00 4.57s	1.00 4.56s	1.00 4.57s	1.00 4.56s	0.77 5.93s	0.65 7.06s	0.87 5.24s	0.62 7.38s	0.58 7.87s	0.87 5.24s
7 bytes	1.00 4.84s	1.01 4.80s	1.01 4.80s	1.01 4.79s	0.79 6.15s	0.69 7.06s	0.92 5.24s	0.66 7.38s	0.60 8.10s	0.76 6.38s
8 bytes	1.00 2.74s	1.00 2.74s	1.09 2.51s	1.09 2.51s	0.54 5.03s	0.39 7.06s	0.52 5.24s	0.69 3.97s	0.33 8.29s	0.75 3.67s
9 bytes	1.00 3.01s	1.08 2.78s	1.07 2.82s	1.06 2.83s	0.59 5.06s	0.27 11.03s	0.45 6.66s	0.41 7.37s	0.36 8.29s	0.60 5.04s
10 bytes	1.00 3.01s	1.08 2.78s	1.08 2.79s	1.04 2.89s	0.59 5.08s	0.27 11.02s	0.45 6.66s	0.41 7.36s	0.36 8.34s	0.60 5.05s
11 bytes	1.00 3.01s	1.08 2.79s	1.08 2.79s	1.08 2.78s	0.59 5.08s	0.27 11.04s	0.45 6.67s	0.41 7.37s	0.36 8.32s	0.49 6.20s
12 bytes	1.00 3.01s	1.09 2.77s	1.07 2.81s	1.07 2.82s	0.59 5.06s	0.27 11.03s	0.45 6.66s	0.41 7.35s	0.36 8.30s	0.60 5.02s
13 bytes	1.00 2.98s	1.08 2.77s	1.05 2.83s	1.08 2.77s	0.59 5.02s	0.27 10.94s	0.45 6.61s	0.41 7.28s	0.36 8.21s	0.48 6.15s
14 bytes	1.00 2.96s	1.08 2.74s	1.08 2.75s	1.08 2.74s	0.59 5.01s	0.27 10.95s	0.45 6.60s	0.41 7.29s	0.36 8.21s	0.48 6.16s
15 bytes	1.00 2.98s	1.09 2.74s	1.08 2.77s	1.06 2.80s	0.59 5.01s	0.27 10.93s	0.45 6.61s	0.41 7.29s	0.36 8.21s	0.41 7.28s
16 bytes	1.00 2.98s	1.09 2.74s	1.09 2.73s	1.09 2.73s	0.27 10.94s	0.41 7.28s	0.93 3.19s	0.59 5.08s	0.29 10.31s	0.62 4.78s
32 bytes	1.00 3.28s	1.08 3.05s	1.00 3.27s	0.98 3.34s	0.30 10.95s	0.40 8.19s	1.03 3.19s	0.44 7.50s	0.23 14.39s	0.33 9.82s
64 bytes	1.00 3.89s	1.09 3.58s	0.87 4.47s	0.85 4.58s	0.23 16.63s	0.47 8.36s	1.22 3.19s	0.68 5.69s	0.17 22.59s	0.37 10.49s
96 bytes	1.00 4.55s	1.08 4.20s	0.79 5.79s	0.78 5.83s	0.20 22.31s	0.36 12.54s	1.43 3.19s	0.66 6.88s	0.15 31.11s	0.40 11.27s
128 bytes	1.00 6.32s	1.40 4.52s	0.91 6.92s	0.90 7.06s	0.23 27.99s	0.50 12.54s	1.98 3.19s	0.83 7.57s	0.16 39.35s	0.53 11.85s
192 bytes	1.00 8.55s	1.29 6.63s	0.90 9.46s	0.99 8.65s	0.36 23.81s	0.59 14.48s	1.25 6.83s	0.88 9.74s	0.15 55.96s	0.65 13.21s
256 bytes	1.00 10.98s	1.38 7.95s	0.92 11.98s	1.06 10.32s	0.45 24.22s	0.66 16.71s	0.79 13.86s	0.92 11.89s	0.15 74.12s	0.75 14.57s
512 bytes	1.00 14.42s	1.12 12.91s	0.65 22.33s	0.79 18.16s	0.41 35.30s	0.53 26.98s	0.91 15.92s	0.69 21.04s	0.10 140.39s	0.63 22.76s
1024 bytes	1.00 17.13s	1.09 15.75s	0.37 46.54s	0.50 34.26s	0.32 53.76s	0.38 45.34s	0.88 19.50s	0.44 38.78s	0.06 272.94s	0.44 39.07s
Bulk	1.00 1.70s	1.36 1.25s	0.31 5.57s	0.44 3.85s	0.33 5.13s	0.34 4.94s	1.18 1.44s	0.37 4.62s	0.05 33.88s	0.40 4.26s
Average	1.00	1.11	0.93	0.96	0.50	0.43	0.85	0.58	0.31	0.59
Geomean	1.00	1.10	0.90	0.93	0.46	0.41	0.77	0.55	0.26	0.56

• Intel i5-13600K:

Length	VMUM-V2	VMUM-V1	MUM-V4	MUM-V3	Spooky	City	xxHash3	t1ha2	SipHash24	Metro
3 bytes	1.00 4.67s	1.02 4.59s	1.03 4.53s	1.03 4.53s	0.67 6.94s	0.58 8.05s	0.93 5.03s	0.50 9.31s	0.47 9.93s	0.69 6.79s
4 bytes	1.00 4.27s	1.00 4.27s	1.06 4.02s	1.06 4.02s	0.73 5.86s	0.51 8.37s	0.75 5.70s	0.77 5.58s	0.52 8.17s	0.81 5.28s
5 bytes	1.00 4.66s	1.02 4.59s	1.03 4.53s	1.03 4.53s	0.73 6.37s	0.57 8.17s	0.82 5.70s	0.50 9.31s	0.44 10.49s	0.69 6.79s
6 bytes	1.00 4.67s	1.02 4.56s	1.03 4.53s	1.03 4.53s	0.69 6.76s	0.57 8.17s	0.82 5.69s	0.50 9.31s	0.43 10.95s	0.69 6.79s
7 bytes	1.00 4.87s	1.00 4.89s	1.01 4.83s	1.01 4.83s	0.69 7.02s	0.60 8.17s	0.85 5.70s	0.52 9.31s	0.45 10.89s	0.69 7.04s
8 bytes	1.00 4.27s	1.00 4.28s	1.55 2.76s	1.55 2.76s	0.76 5.60s	0.53 8.08s	0.75 5.69s	0.99 4.30s	0.39 10.88s	1.06 4.02s
9 bytes	1.00 4.53s	1.06 4.29s	1.50 3.02s	1.50 3.01s	0.81 5.60s	0.33 13.59s	0.53 8.58s	0.48 9.51s	0.42 10.88s	0.82 5.53s
10 bytes	1.00 4.54s	1.06 4.29s	1.50 3.02s	1.51 3.01s	0.81 5.60s	0.33 13.59s	0.53 8.58s	0.48 9.51s	0.42 10.88s	0.82 5.53s
11 bytes	1.00 4.52s	1.06 4.27s	1.50 3.02s	1.50 3.02s	0.81 5.60s	0.33 13.59s	0.53 8.58s	0.48 9.51s	0.42 10.88s	0.67 6.79s
12 bytes	1.00 4.54s	1.06 4.29s	1.50 3.02s	1.51 3.01s	0.81 5.60s	0.33 13.59s	0.53 8.58s	0.48 9.51s	0.42 10.88s	0.82 5.53s
13 bytes	1.00 4.52s	1.06 4.28s	1.49 3.03s	1.50 3.02s	0.81 5.60s	0.33 13.59s	0.53 8.59s	0.48 9.51s	0.42 10.88s	0.67 6.79s
14 bytes	1.00 4.52s	1.06 4.27s	1.49 3.03s	1.50 3.02s	0.81 5.60s	0.33 13.59s	0.53 8.59s	0.48 9.51s	0.42 10.88s	0.67 6.79s
15 bytes	1.00 4.53s	1.06 4.29s	1.50 3.02s	1.50 3.02s	0.81 5.60s	0.33 13.59s	0.53 8.58s	0.48 9.51s	0.42 10.88s	0.56 8.05s
16 bytes	1.00 4.52s	1.06 4.28s	1.50 3.02s	1.50 3.01s	0.37 12.13s	0.56 8.05s	0.89 5.07s	0.85 5.29s	0.34 13.43s	0.83 5.46s
32 bytes	1.00 4.79s	1.05 4.58s	1.30 3.69s	1.33 3.59s	0.39 12.38s	0.51 9.39s	0.94 5.10s	0.67 7.15s	0.25 18.92s	0.43 11.07s
64 bytes	1.00 5.46s	1.06 5.15s	1.14 4.78s	1.11 4.91s	0.29 18.66s	0.58 9.36s	1.06 5.13s	0.88 6.22s	0.17 31.57s	0.46 11.83s
96 bytes	1.00 6.43s	1.10 5.83s	0.84 7.68s	0.84 7.67s	0.26 25.17s	0.46 13.88s	1.23 5.23s	0.85 7.60s	0.15 42.71s	0.51 12.70s
128 bytes	1.00 7.92s	1.25 6.36s	0.84 9.42s	0.86 9.19s	0.25 31.62s	0.57 13.87s	1.51 5.24s	0.91 8.67s	0.15 53.88s	0.59 13.51s
192 bytes	1.00 11.52s	1.43 8.06s	1.05 11.02s	1.08 10.68s	0.39 29.49s	0.71 16.25s	1.23 9.34s	1.03 11.18s	0.15 76.23s	0.76 15.07s
256 bytes	1.00 14.26s	1.60 8.89s	1.04 13.65s	1.18 12.11s	0.48 29.86s	0.75 19.06s	0.91 15.64s	1.03 13.82s	0.15 97.67s	0.85 16.68s
512 bytes	1.00 15.93s	1.04 15.31s	0.62 25.67s	0.81 19.65s	0.35 45.39s	0.46 34.70s	0.96 16.68s	0.58 27.38s	0.09 186.04s	0.53 29.86s
1024 bytes	1.00 20.96s	1.08 19.32s	0.42 49.61s	0.56 37.74s	0.29 71.66s	0.34 61.75s	0.84 24.92s	0.42 49.86s	0.06 362.59s	0.36 58.67s
Bulk	1.00 3.13s	1.09 2.86s	0.40 7.77s	0.61 5.17s	0.40 7.78s	0.42 7.37s	0.87 3.60s	0.49 6.38s	0.07 45.99s	0.45 6.88s
Average	1.00	1.10	1.15	1.18	0.58	0.48	0.83	0.65	0.31	0.67
Geomean	1.00	1.09	1.08	1.13	0.54	0.46	0.79	0.62	0.26	0.65

• Apple M4:

Length	VMUM-V2	VMUM-V1	MUM-V4	MUM-V3	Spooky	City	xxHash3	t1ha2	SipHash24	Metro
3 bytes	1.00 5.15s	1.02 5.03s	1.03 5.02s	1.02 5.03s	0.69 7.50s	0.52 9.91s	0.87 5.92s	1.08 4.77s	0.51 10.01s	0.63 8.17s
4 bytes	1.00 4.70s	1.01 4.66s	1.08 4.36s	1.08 4.36s	0.69 6.78s	0.49 9.64s	0.70 6.71s	0.99 4.77s	0.52 9.03s	0.73 6.41s
5 bytes	1.00 5.05s	1.00 5.03s	1.01 5.01s	1.01 5.01s	0.71 7.08s	0.52 9.64s	0.74 6.78s	1.06 4.77s	0.49 10.38s	0.62 8.17s
6 bytes	1.00 5.15s	1.02 5.03s	1.04 4.95s	1.04 4.95s	0.69 7.49s	0.53 9.64s	0.76 6.78s	1.08 4.76s	0.49 10.51s	0.63 8.17s
7 bytes	1.00 5.52s	1.03 5.34s	1.04 5.32s	1.04 5.32s	0.71 7.82s	0.57 9.64s	0.81 6.79s	1.16 4.76s	0.51 10.77s	0.65 8.46s
8 bytes	1.00 3.07s	1.02 3.02s	1.16 2.65s	1.16 2.65s	0.47 6.49s	0.32 9.64s	0.46 6.71s	0.68 4.53s	0.26 11.69s	0.66 4.66s
9 bytes	1.00 3.26s	1.07 3.04s	1.03 3.17s	1.03 3.18s	0.50 6.48s	0.27 11.96s	0.56 5.85s	0.55 5.98s	0.28 11.69s	0.51 6.41s
10 bytes	1.00 3.27s	1.08 3.03s	1.08 3.02s	1.08 3.02s	0.50 6.48s	0.27 11.96s	0.56 5.85s	0.55 5.98s	0.28 11.69s	0.51 6.41s
11 bytes	1.00 3.38s	1.10 3.07s	1.11 3.05s	1.07 3.15s	0.52 6.48s	0.28 11.96s	0.58 5.85s	0.57 5.98s	0.29 11.69s	0.43 7.87s
12 bytes	1.00 3.39s	1.08 3.13s	1.13 3.00s	1.13 3.00s	0.52 6.48s	0.28 11.96s	0.58 5.85s	0.57 5.98s	0.29 11.69s	0.53 6.41s
13 bytes	1.00 3.33s	1.08 3.08s	1.10 3.04s	1.10 3.04s	0.51 6.48s	0.28 11.95s	0.57 5.85s	0.56 5.98s	0.28 11.69s	0.42 7.87s
14 bytes	1.00 3.31s	1.09 3.05s	1.10 3.02s	1.09 3.03s	0.51 6.48s	0.28 11.96s	0.56 5.86s	0.55 5.98s	0.28 11.69s	0.42 7.87s
15 bytes	1.00 3.32s	1.06 3.12s	1.08 3.07s	1.08 3.07s	0.51 6.48s	0.28 11.96s	0.57 5.85s	0.56 5.98s	0.28 11.69s	0.36 9.33s
16 bytes	1.00 3.30s	1.10 3.00s	1.07 3.07s	1.07 3.08s	0.23 14.08s	0.35 9.33s	0.85 3.87s	0.55 5.98s	0.23 14.58s	0.54 6.12s
32 bytes	1.00 3.66s	1.07 3.42s	1.01 3.64s	1.00 3.65s	0.26 14.07s	0.35 10.51s	0.96 3.80s	0.41 9.03s	0.18 20.66s	0.29 12.57s
64 bytes	1.00 4.42s	1.09 4.07s	0.89 4.99s	0.89 4.99s	0.21 21.37s	0.41 10.84s	1.17 3.79s	0.62 7.11s	0.13 33.90s	0.33 13.44s
96 bytes	1.00 5.16s	1.07 4.82s	0.82 6.27s	0.84 6.17s	0.18 28.70s	0.32 16.19s	1.36 3.80s	0.60 8.57s	0.11 45.54s	0.36 14.34s
128 bytes	1.00 6.87s	1.13 6.08s	0.91 7.55s	0.93 7.40s	0.19 35.99s	0.42 16.19s	1.81 3.80s	0.72 9.53s	0.12 59.49s	0.45 15.22s
192 bytes	1.00 8.65s	1.12 7.69s	0.82 10.60s	0.88 9.86s	0.27 31.55s	0.46 18.64s	0.88 9.86s	0.71 12.16s	0.10 84.13s	0.51 16.99s
256 bytes	1.00 9.39s	1.30 7.20s	0.71 13.24s	0.76 12.29s	0.29 32.11s	0.44 21.28s	0.71 13.19s	0.63 14.87s	0.09 106.82s	0.50 18.77s
512 bytes	1.00 14.79s	1.07 13.76s	0.69 21.33s	0.92 15.99s	0.29 50.41s	0.40 37.15s	0.91 16.28s	0.49 30.25s	0.07 204.80s	0.46 31.88s
1024 bytes	1.00 27.83s	1.56 17.79s	0.65 43.07s	1.04 26.70s	0.35 78.46s	0.44 62.77s	1.14 24.39s	0.51 54.28s	0.07 399.61s	0.55 50.90s
Bulk	1.00 3.45s	1.39 2.49s	0.58 6.00s	1.13 3.06s	0.44 7.83s	0.51 6.70s	1.19 2.89s	0.54 6.36s	0.07 50.68s	0.67 5.13s
Average	1.00	1.11	0.96	1.02	0.45	0.39	0.84	0.68	0.26	0.51
Geomean	1.00	1.10	0.95	1.01	0.41	0.38	0.79	0.66	0.21	0.50

• IBM Power10:

Length	VMUM-V2	VMUM-V1	MUM-V4	MUM-V3	Spooky	City	xxHash3	t1ha2	SipHash24	Metro
3 bytes	1.00 11.52s	1.00 11.53s	1.03 11.18s	1.03 11.21s	0.68 16.87s	0.61 18.95s	0.95 12.16s	1.09 10.57s	0.52 22.13s	0.66 17.35s
4 bytes	1.00 10.86s	1.00 10.87s	1.07 10.19s	1.07 10.19s	0.72 15.18s	0.54 20.22s	0.89 12.27s	1.03 10.58s	0.51 21.13s	0.88 12.40s
5 bytes	1.00 11.53s	0.98 11.73s	1.03 11.17s	1.03 11.17s	0.71 16.24s	0.55 20.91s	0.90 12.76s	1.09 10.58s	0.49 23.74s	0.66 17.35s
6 bytes	1.00 11.52s	0.98 11.73s	1.03 11.17s	1.03 11.18s	0.68 16.87s	0.55 20.92s	0.90 12.76s	1.09 10.58s	0.48 23.91s	0.66 17.36s
7 bytes	1.00 12.23s	1.02 11.96s	0.98 12.51s	1.03 11.84s	0.69 17.69s	0.58 20.92s	0.96 12.76s	1.16 10.56s	0.50 24.38s	0.56 22.01s
8 bytes	1.00 10.85s	1.00 10.86s	1.06 10.19s	1.07 10.18s	0.76 14.27s	0.52 20.92s	0.85 12.75s	1.05 10.32s	0.37 29.14s	1.10 9.86s
9 bytes	1.00 11.54s	1.06 10.87s	1.06 10.85s	1.06 10.85s	0.79 14.55s	0.40 28.92s	0.72 16.11s	0.84 13.73s	0.40 29.08s	0.84 13.80s
10 bytes	1.00 11.53s	1.06 10.87s	1.06 10.85s	1.06 10.85s	0.79 14.54s	0.40 28.92s	0.72 16.10s	0.84 13.72s	0.40 29.17s	0.84 13.79s
11 bytes	1.00 11.22s	1.03 10.87s	1.03 10.85s	1.03 10.85s	0.77 14.55s	0.39 28.90s	0.70 16.11s	0.82 13.72s	0.38 29.21s	0.66 17.08s
12 bytes	1.00 11.53s	1.06 10.86s	1.06 10.86s	1.06 10.85s	0.79 14.54s	0.40 28.92s	0.72 16.11s	0.84 13.72s	0.40 29.13s	0.84 13.80s
13 bytes	1.00 11.23s	1.03 10.87s	1.04 10.85s	1.04 10.85s	0.77 14.56s	0.39 28.91s	0.70 16.11s	0.82 13.72s	0.39 29.14s	0.66 17.09s
14 bytes	1.00 11.23s	1.03 10.88s	1.03 10.87s	1.04 10.84s	0.77 14.55s	0.39 28.92s	0.70 16.11s	0.82 13.71s	0.38 29.20s	0.66 17.09s
15 bytes	1.00 11.53s	1.06 10.88s	1.06 10.89s	1.06 10.89s	0.79 14.56s	0.40 28.91s	0.72 16.11s	0.84 13.72s	0.40 29.17s	0.57 20.38s
16 bytes	1.00 12.20s	1.12 10.91s	1.12 10.85s	1.12 10.89s	0.44 27.70s	0.61 20.05s	1.36 8.96s	0.89 13.72s	0.31 39.95s	1.00 12.16s
32 bytes	1.00 12.92s	1.11 11.59s	1.06 12.22s	1.06 12.22s	0.45 28.63s	0.58 22.34s	1.57 8.23s	0.64 20.32s	0.24 54.90s	0.52 24.97s
64 bytes	1.00 14.54s	1.11 13.09s	0.97 15.02s	0.96 15.07s	0.35 41.29s	0.62 23.31s	1.70 8.54s	0.90 16.20s	0.16 88.17s	0.54 26.78s
96 bytes	1.00 15.93s	1.13 14.07s	0.82 19.44s	0.96 16.64s	0.29 54.32s	0.45 35.33s	1.93 8.24s	0.81 19.57s	0.13 119.66s	0.55 28.81s
128 bytes	1.00 16.71s	1.08 15.47s	0.75 22.21s	0.86 19.52s	0.24 68.72s	0.47 35.31s	2.03 8.22s	0.77 21.78s	0.11 156.55s	0.54 30.78s
192 bytes	1.00 21.98s	1.16 18.99s	0.83 26.51s	0.83 26.60s	0.36 60.97s	0.53 41.32s	0.76 28.78s	0.76 29.01s	0.11 195.56s	0.62 35.17s
256 bytes	1.00 22.31s	1.25 17.89s	0.73 30.47s	0.76 29.34s	0.36 62.61s	0.47 47.41s	0.67 33.50s	0.64 35.02s	0.09 252.22s	0.57 39.10s
512 bytes	1.00 33.65s	1.19 28.16s	0.71 47.60s	0.74 45.60s	0.33 100.76s	0.46 73.34s	0.73 46.38s	0.56 60.20s	0.07 483.42s	0.60 55.93s
1024 bytes	1.00 56.70s	1.41 40.15s	0.69 81.61s	0.73 78.10s	0.34 167.11s	0.45 126.45s	0.80 70.61s	0.49 116.16s	0.06 944.76s	0.45 127.01s
Bulk	1.00 6.75s	1.42 4.75s	0.70 9.62s	0.67 10.01s	0.38 17.80s	0.49 13.74s	0.93 7.27s	0.49 13.91s	0.06 118.69s	0.46 14.52s
Average	1.00	1.10	0.95	0.97	0.58	0.49	1.00	0.84	0.30	0.67
Geomean	1.00	1.09	0.94	0.96	0.54	0.48	0.93	0.82	0.24	0.65